Ethiopia
Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia | |
|---|---|
| Anthem: ወደፊት ገስግሺ ፣ ውድ እናት ኢትዮጵያ "Wedefīt Gesigishī Wid Inat ītiyop’iy" (English: "March Forward, Dear Mother Ethiopia") | |
.svg) | |
| Capital and largest city | Addis Ababa 9°1′N 38°45′E / 9.017°N 38.750°E |
| Official languages | |
| Ethnic groups | |
| Religion (2016[7]) |
|
| Demonym(s) | Ethiopian |
| Government | Federal parliamentary republic[8] |
| Taye Atske Selassie | |
| Abiy Ahmed | |
| Temesgen Tiruneh | |
| Tewodros Mihret | |
| Legislature | Federal Parliamentary Assembly |
| House of Federation | |
| House of Peoples' Representatives | |
| Formation | |
• Dʿmt | 980 BC |
| 400 BC | |
| 1270 | |
| 7 May 1769 | |
| 11 February 1855 | |
| 1904 | |
| 9 May 1936 | |
| 31 January 1942 | |
• Derg | 12 September 1974 |
| 22 February 1987 | |
| 28 May 1991 | |
| 21 August 1995 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 1,104,300 km2 (426,400 sq mi) (26th) |
• Water (%) | 0.7 |
| Population | |
• 2024 estimate |  132,900,000[9] (10th) |
• 2007 census | 73,750,932[6] |
• Density | 92.7/km2 (240.1/sq mi) (123rd) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $434.44 billion[10] (55th) |
• Per capita | $4,050[10] (159th) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $145.03 billion[10] (59th) |
• Per capita | $1,350[10] (159th) |
| Gini (2015) |  35.0[11]medium inequality |
| HDI (2022) | 0.492[12] low (176th) |
| Currency | Birr (ETB) |
| Time zone | UTC+3 (EAT) |
| Date format | dd/mm/yyyy |
| Drives on | right |
| Calling code | +251 |
| ISO 3166 code | ET |
| Internet TLD | .et |
Ethiopia,[c] officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Kenya to the south, South Sudan to the west, and Sudan to the northwest. Ethiopia covers a land area of 1,104,300 square kilometres (426,400 sq mi).[13] As of 2024[update], it is home to around 132 million inhabitants, making it the 10th-most populous country in the world,[14] the 2nd-most populous in Africa after Nigeria, and the most populated landlocked country on Earth.[15][16] The national capital and largest city, Addis Ababa, lies several kilometres west of the East African Rift that splits the country into the African and Somali tectonic plates.[17]
Anatomically modern humans emerged from modern-day Ethiopia and set out for the Near East and elsewhere in the Middle Paleolithic period.[18][19][20][21][22] Southwestern Ethiopia has been proposed as a possible homeland of the Afroasiatic language family.[23] In 980 BC, the Kingdom of D'mt extended its realm over Eritrea and the northern region of Ethiopia, while the Kingdom of Aksum maintained a unified civilization in the region for 900 years. Christianity was embraced by the kingdom in 330,[24] and Islam arrived by the first Hijra in 615.[25] After the collapse of Aksum in 960, the Zagwe dynasty ruled the north-central parts of Ethiopia until being overthrown by Yekuno Amlak in 1270, inaugurating the Ethiopian Empire and the Solomonic dynasty, claimed descent from the biblical Solomon and Queen of Sheba under their son Menelik I. By the 14th century, the empire had grown in prestige through territorial expansion and fighting against adjacent territories; most notably, the Ethiopian–Adal War (1529–1543) contributed to fragmentation of the empire, which ultimately fell under a decentralization known as Zemene Mesafint in the mid-18th century. Emperor Tewodros II ended Zemene Mesafint at the beginning of his reign in 1855, marking the reunification and modernization of Ethiopia.[26]
From 1878 onwards, Emperor Menelik II launched a series of conquests known as Menelik's Expansions, which resulted in the formation of Ethiopia's current border. Externally, during the late 19th century, Ethiopia defended itself against foreign invasions, including from Egypt and Italy; as a result, Ethiopia preserved its sovereignty during the Scramble for Africa. In 1936, Ethiopia was occupied by Fascist Italy and annexed with Italian-possessed Eritrea and Somaliland, later forming Italian East Africa. In 1941, during World War II, it was occupied by the British Army, and its full sovereignty was restored in 1944 after a period of military administration. The Derg, a Soviet-backed military junta, took power in 1974 after deposing Emperor Haile Selassie and the Solomonic dynasty, and ruled the country for nearly 17 years amidst the Ethiopian Civil War. Following the dissolution of the Derg in 1991, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) dominated the country with a new constitution and ethnic-based federalism. Since then, Ethiopia has suffered from prolonged and unsolved inter-ethnic clashes and political instability marked by democratic backsliding. From 2018, regional and ethnically based factions carried out armed attacks in multiple ongoing wars throughout Ethiopia.[27]
Ethiopia is a multi-ethnic state with over 80 different ethnic groups. Christianity is the most widely professed faith in the country, with significant minorities of the adherents of Islam and a small percentage to traditional faiths. This sovereign state is a founding member of the UN, the Group of 24, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Group of 77, and the Organisation of African Unity. Addis Ababa is the headquarters of the African Union, the Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, the African Standby Force and many of the global non-governmental organizations focused on Africa. Ethiopia became a full member of BRICS in 2024.[28] Ethiopia is one of the least developed countries but is sometimes considered an emerging power,[29][30] having the fastest economic growth in sub-Saharan African countries because of foreign direct investment in expansion of agricultural and manufacturing industries;[31] agriculture is the country's largest economic sector, accounting for over 37% of the gross domestic product as of 2022.[32] However, in terms of per capita income and the Human Development Index,[33] the country is regarded as poor, with high rates of poverty,[34] poor respect for human rights, widespread ethnic discrimination, and a literacy rate of only 49%.[35]
Etymology
Tradition holds that the name Ethiopia (ኢትዮጵያ) comes from the name of the first King of Ethiopia, Ethiop, or Ethiopis.
Ayele Berkerie explains:
According to an Ethiopian tradition, the term Ethiopia is derived from the word Ethiopis, a name of the Ethiopian king, the seventh in the ancestral lines. Metshafe Aksum or the Ethiopian Book of Aksum identifies Itiopis as the twelfth king of Ethiopia and the father of Aksumawi. The Ethiopians pronounce Ethiopia እትዮጵያ with a Sades or the sixth sound እ as in incorporate and the graph ጰ has no equivalent in English or Latin graphs. Ethiopis is believed to be the twelfth direct descendant of Adam. His father is identified as Kush, while his grandfather is known as Kam.[36]
In the 15th-century Ge'ez Book of Axum, the name is ascribed to a legendary individual called Ityopp'is. He was an extra-biblical son of Cush, son of Ham, said to have founded the city of Axum.[37]
The Greek name Αἰθιοπία (from Αἰθίοψ, "an Ethiopian") is a compound word, later explained as derived from the Greek words αἴθω and ὤψ (eithō "I burn" + ōps "face"). According to the Liddell-Scott Jones Greek-English Lexicon, the designation properly translates as burnt-face in noun form and red-brown in adjectival form.[38] The historian Herodotus used the appellation to denote those parts of Africa south of the Sahara that were then known within the Ecumene (habitable world).[39] The earliest mention of the term is found in the works of Homer, where it is used to refer to two people groups, one in Africa and one in the east from eastern Turkey to India.[40] This Greek name was borrowed into Amharic as ኢትዮጵያ, ʾĪtyōṗṗyā.
In Greco-Roman epigraphs, Aethiopia was a specific toponym for ancient Nubia.[41] At least as early as c. 850,[42] the name Aethiopia also occurs in many translations of the Old Testament in allusion to Nubia. The ancient Hebrew texts identify Nubia instead as Kush.[43] However, in the New Testament, the Greek term Aithiops does occur, referring to a servant of the Kandake, the queen of Kush.[44]
Following the Hellenic and biblical traditions, the Monumentum Adulitanum, a 3rd-century inscription belonging to the Aksumite Empire, indicates that Aksum's ruler governed an area that was flanked to the west by the territory of Ethiopia and Sasu. The Aksumite King Ezana eventually conquered Nubia the following century, and the Aksumites thereafter appropriated the designation "Ethiopians" for their own kingdom. In the Ge'ez version of the Ezana inscription, Aἰθίοπες is equated with the unvocalized Ḥbšt and Ḥbśt (Ḥabashat), and denotes for the first time the highland inhabitants of Aksum. This new demonym was subsequently rendered as ḥbs ('Aḥbāsh) in Sabaic and as Ḥabasha in Arabic.[41] Derivatives of this are used in some languages that use loanwords from Arabic, for example in Malay Habsyah.
In English, and generally outside of Ethiopia, the country was historically known as Abyssinia. This toponym was derived from the Latinized form of the ancient Habash.[45]
History
Prehistory
Several important finds have propelled Ethiopia and the surrounding region to the forefront of palaeontology. The oldest hominid discovered to date in Ethiopia is the 4.2 million-year-old Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardi) found by Tim D. White in 1994.[46] The most well-known hominid discovery is Australopithecus afarensis (Lucy). Known locally as Dinkinesh, the specimen was found in the Awash Valley of Afar Region in 1974 by Donald Johanson, and is one of the most complete and best-preserved adult Australopithecine fossils ever uncovered. Lucy's taxonomic name refers to the region where the discovery was made. This hominid is estimated to have lived 3.2 million years ago.[47][48][49]
Ethiopia is also considered one of the earliest sites of the emergence of anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens. The oldest of these local fossil finds, the Omo remains, were excavated in the southwestern Omo Kibish area and have been dated to the Middle Paleolithic, around 200,000 years ago.[50] Additionally, skeletons of Homo sapiens idaltu were found at a site in the Middle Awash valley. Dated to approximately 160,000 years ago, they may represent an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens, or the immediate ancestors of anatomically modern humans.[51] Archaic Homo sapiens fossils excavated at the Jebel Irhoud site in Morocco have since been dated to an earlier period, about 300,000 years ago,[52] while Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern Ethiopia is the oldest anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeleton currently known (196 ± 5 kya).[53]
According to some linguists, the first Afroasiatic-speaking populations arrived in the region during the ensuing Neolithic era from the family's proposed urheimat ("original homeland") in the Nile Valley,[54] or the Near East.[55] The majority of scholars today propose that the Afroasiatic family developed in northeast Africa because of the higher diversity of lineages in that region, a telltale sign of linguistic origin.[56][57][58]
In 2019, archaeologists discovered a 30,000-year-old Middle Stone Age rock shelter at the Fincha Habera site in Bale Mountains at an elevation of 3,469 metres (11,381 feet) above sea level. At this high altitude, humans are susceptible both to hypoxia and to extreme weather. According to a study published in the journal Science, this dwelling is proof of the earliest permanent human occupation at high altitude yet discovered. Thousands of animal bones, hundreds of stone tools, and ancient fireplaces were discovered, revealing a diet that featured giant mole rats.[59][60][61][62][63][64][65]
Evidence of some of the earliest known stone-tipped projectile weapons (a characteristic tool of Homo sapiens), the stone tips of javelins or throwing spears, were discovered in 2013 at the Ethiopian site of Gademotta, which date to around 279,000 years ago.[66] In 2019, additional Middle Stone Age projectile weapons were found at Aduma, dated 100,000–80,000 years ago, in the form of points considered likely to belong to darts delivered by spear throwers.[67]
Antiquity
In 980 BC, Dʿmt was established in present-day Eritrea and the northern part of Ethiopia in Tigray and Amhara regions, and is widely believed to be the successor state to Punt. This polity's capital was located at Yeha in what is now northern Ethiopia. Most modern historians consider this civilization to be a native Ethiopian one, although in earlier times many suggested it was Sabaean-influenced because of the latter's hegemony of the Red Sea.[68]
Other scholars regard Dʿmt as the result of a union of Afroasiatic-speaking cultures of the Cushitic and Semitic branches; namely, local Agaw peoples and Sabaeans from Southern Arabia. However, Ge'ez, the ancient Semitic language of Ethiopia, is thought to have developed independently from the Sabaean language. As early as 2000 BC, other Semitic speakers were living in Ethiopia and Eritrea where Ge'ez developed.[69][70] Sabaean influence is now thought to have been minor, limited to a few localities, and disappearing after a few decades or a century. It may have been a trading or military colony in alliance with the Ethiopian civilization of Dʿmt or some other proto-Axumite state.[68]
After the fall of Dʿmt during the 4th century BC, the Ethiopian plateau came to be dominated by smaller successor kingdoms. In the 1st century AD, the Kingdom of Aksum emerged in what is now Tigray Region and Eritrea. According to the medieval Book of Axum, the kingdom's first capital, Mazaber, was built by Itiyopis, son of Cush.[37] Aksum would later at times extend its rule into Yemen on the other side of the Red Sea.[71] The Persian prophet Mani listed Axum with Rome, Persia, and China as one of the four great powers of his era, during the 3rd century.[72] It is also believed that there was a connection between Egyptian and Ethiopian churches. There is diminutive evidence that the Aksumites were associated with the Queen of Sheba, via their royal inscription.[73]
Around 316 AD, Frumentius and his brother Edesius from Tyre accompanied their uncle on a voyage to Ethiopia. When the vessel stopped at a Red Sea port, the natives killed all the travellers except the two brothers, who were taken to the court as slaves. They were given positions of trust by the monarch, and they converted members of the royal court to Christianity. Frumentius became the first bishop of Aksum.[74] A coin dated to 324 shows that Ethiopia was the second country to officially adopt Christianity (after Armenia did so in 301), although the religion may have been at first confined to court circles; it was the first major power to do so. The Aksumites were accustomed to the Greco-Roman sphere of influence, but embarked on significant cultural ties and trade connections between the Indian subcontinent and the Roman Empire via the Silk Road, primarily exporting ivory, tortoise shell, gold and emeralds, and importing silk and spices.[73][75]
Middle Ages
The kingdom adopted the name "Ethiopia" during the reign of Ezana in the 4th century. After the conquest of Kingdom of Kush in 330, the Aksumite territory reached its peak between the 5th and 6th centuries.[68] This period was interrupted by several incursions into the South Arabian protectorate, including Jewish Dhu Nuwas of the Himyarite Kingdom and the Aksumite–Persian wars. In 575, the Aksumites besieged and retook Sana'a following the assassination of its governor Sayf ibn Dhī Yazan. The Red Sea was left to the Rashidun Caliphate in 646, and the port city of Adulis was plundered by Arab Muslims in the 8th century; along with irrevocable land degradation, claimed climate change and sporadic rainfall precipitation from 730 to 760,[76] these factors likely caused the kingdom to decline in power as part of an important trade route.[68][77] Aksum came to an end in 960 when Queen Gudit defeated the last king of Aksum.[78] In response, the remnant of the Aksumite population to shift into the southern region and establish the Zagwe dynasty, changing its capital to Lalibela.[79] Zagwe's rule ended when an Amhara noble man Yekuno Amlak revolted against King Yetbarak and established the Ethiopian Empire (known by exonym "Abyssinia").
The Ethiopian Empire initiated territorial expansion under the leadership of Amda Seyon I. He launched campaigns against his Muslim adversaries to the east, resulting in a significant shift in the balance of power in favor of the Christians for the next two centuries. After Amda Seyon's successful eastern campaigns, most of the Muslim principalities in the Horn of Africa came under the suzerainty of the Ethiopian Empire. Stretching from Gojjam to the Somali Coast in Zelia.[80] Among these Muslim entities was the Sultanate of Ifat. During the reign of Emperor Zara Yaqob, the Ethiopian Empire reached its pinnacle. His rule was marked by the consolidation of territorial acquisitions from earlier rulers, the oversight of the construction of numerous churches and monasteries, the active promotion of literature and art, and the strengthening of central imperial authority.[81][82][83] Ifat's successor, the Adal Sultanate,[84] tried to conquer Ethiopia during the Ethiopian–Adal War, but was ultimately defeated at the 1543 Battle of Wayna Daga.[85]
By the 16th century, an influx of migration by ethnic Oromo into northern parts of the region fragmented the empire's power. Embarking from present-day Guji and Borena Zone, the Oromos were largely motivated by several folkloric conceptions—beginning with Moggaasaa[86] and Liqimssa—many of whom related to their raids. This persisted until gada of Meslé.[87][88] According to Abba Bahrey, the earliest expansion occurred under Emperor Dawit II (luba Melbah), when they encroached to Bale before invading Adal Sultanate.[89]
Ethiopia saw major diplomatic contact with Portugal from the 17th century, mainly related to religion. Beginning in 1555,[90] Portuguese Jesuits attempted to develop Roman Catholicism as the state religion. After several failures, they sent several missionaries in 1603, including the most influential, Spanish Jesuit Pedro Paez.[91] Under Emperor Susenyos I, Roman Catholicism became the state religion of the Ethiopian Empire in 1622.[92] This decision caused an uprising by the Orthodox populace.[93]
Early Modern Period (1632–1855)
.jpg)
In 1632, Emperor Fasilides halted Roman Catholic state administration, restoring Orthodox Tewahedo as the state religion.[92] Fasilides' reign solidified imperial power, relocating the capital to Gondar in 1636, marking the beginning of the "Gondarine period".[94] He expelled Jesuits, reclaimed lands, and relocated them to Fremona. During his rule, Fasilides constructed the iconic royal fortress, Fasil Ghebbi, built forty-four churches,[95] and revived Ethiopian art. He is also credited with building seven stone bridges over the Blue Nile River.[96]
Gondar's power declined after the death of Iyasu I in 1706. Following Iyasu II's death in 1755, Empress Mentewab brought her brother, Ras Wolde Leul, to Gondar, making him Ras Bitwaded. This led to regnal conflict between Mentewab's Quaregnoch and the Wollo group led by Wubit. In 1767, Ras Mikael Sehul, a regent in Tigray Province, seized Gondar, killing the child Iyoas I in 1769, the reigning emperor, and installed 70-year-old Yohannes II.[97]
Between 1769 and 1855, Ethiopia witnessed the Zemene Mesafint or "Age of Princes," a period of isolation. Emperors became figureheads, controlled by regional lords and noblemen like Ras Mikael Sehul, Ras Wolde Selassie of Tigray, and by the Yejju Oromo dynasty of the Wara Sheh, including Ras Gugsa of Yejju. Before the Zemene Mesafint, Emperor Iyoas I had introduced the Oromo language (Afaan Oromo) at court, replacing Amharic.[98][99]
Age of Imperialism (1855–1916)
.jpg)
Ethiopian isolationism ended following a British mission that concluded with an alliance between the two nations, but it was not until 1855 that the Amhara kingdoms of northern Ethiopia (Gondar, Gojjam, and Shewa) were briefly united after the power of the emperor was restored beginning with the reign of Tewodros II.[100][101] Tewodros II began a process of consolidation, centralisation, and state-building that would be continued by succeeding emperors. This process reduced the power of regional rulers, restructured the empire's administration, and created a professional army. These changes created the basis for establishing the effective sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Ethiopian state.[102] In 1875 and 1876, Ottoman and Egyptian forces, accompanied by many European and American advisors, twice invaded Abyssinia but were initially defeated.[103] From 1885 to 1889 (under Yohannes IV), Ethiopia joined the Mahdist War allied to Britain, Turkey, and Egypt against the Sudanese Mahdist State. In 1887, Menelik II, king of Shewa, invaded the Emirate of Harar after his victory at the Battle of Chelenqo.[104] On 10 March 1889, Yohannes IV was killed by the Sudanese Khalifah Abdullah's army whilst leading his army in the Battle of Gallabat.[105]
Ethiopia, in roughly its current form, began under the reign of Menelik II, who was Emperor from 1889 until his death in 1913. From his base in the central province of Shewa, Menelik set out to annex territories to the south, east, and west[106] — areas inhabited by the Oromo, Sidama, Gurage, Welayta, and other peoples.[107] He achieved this with the help of Ras Gobana Dacche's Shewan Oromo militia, which occupied lands that had not been held since Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi's war, as well as other areas that had never been under Ethiopian rule.[108]
For his leadership, despite opposition from more traditional elements of society, Menelik II was heralded as a national hero. He had signed the Treaty of Wuchale with Italy in May 1889, by which Italy would recognize Ethiopia's sovereignty so long as Italy could control an area north of Ethiopia (now part of modern Eritrea). In return, Italy was to provide Menelik with weapons and support him as emperor. The Italians used the time between the signing of the treaty and its ratification by the Italian government to expand their territorial claims. This First Italo–Ethiopian War culminated in the Battle of Adwa on 1 March 1896, in which Italy's colonial forces were defeated by the Ethiopians.[107][109] During this time, about a third of the population died in the Great Ethiopian Famine (1888 to 1892),[110][111] and the rinderpest swept through the area, destroying much of the herd economy. On 11 October 1897, Ethiopia adopted the colours of the pan-African flag with green, yellow and red stripes in representation of pan-Africanist ideology.
Haile Selassie I era (1916–1974)
The early 20th century was marked by the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie (Ras Tafari). He came to power after Lij Iyasu was deposed, and undertook a nationwide modernization campaign from 1916 when he was made a Ras and Regent (Inderase) for the Empress Regnant Zewditu, and became the de facto ruler of the Ethiopian Empire. Following Zewditu's death, on 2 November 1930, he succeeded her as emperor.[112] In 1931, Haile Selassie endowed Ethiopia with its first-ever Constitution in emulation of Imperial Japan's 1890 Constitution.[113] The independence of Ethiopia was interrupted by the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, beginning when it was invaded by Fascist Italy in early October 1935, and by subsequent Italian rule of the country (1936–1941) after Italian victory in the war.[114] Italy, however, never managed to secure the country in its totality, due to resistance from the Arbegnoch, this made Ethiopia, along with Liberia, the only African countries to never be colonized.[115][116] Following the entry of Italy into World War II, British Empire forces, together with the Arbegnoch, liberated Ethiopia in the course of the East African campaign in 1941. The country was placed under British military administration, and then Ethiopia's full sovereignty was restored with the signing of the Anglo-Ethiopian Agreement in December 1944.[117]
On 24 October 1945, Ethiopia became a founding member of the United Nations. In 1952, Haile Selassie orchestrated a federation with Eritrea. He dissolved this in 1962 and annexed Eritrea, resulting in the Eritrean War of Independence.[citation needed] Haile Selassie also played a leading role in the formation of the Organisation of African Unity (OAU).[118] Opinion within Ethiopia turned against Haile Selassie, owing to the worldwide 1973 oil crisis causing a sharp increase in gasoline prices starting on 13 February 1974, leading to student and worker protests.[119] The feudal oligarchical cabinet of Aklilu Habte-Wold was toppled, and a new government was formed with Endelkachew Makonnen serving as Prime Minister.[120]
Derg era (1974–1991)
Haile Selassie's rule ended on 12 September 1974, when he was deposed by the Derg, a committee made up of military and police officers.[121] After the execution of 60 former government and military officials,[122] the new Provisional Military Administrative Council abolished the monarchy in March 1975 and established Ethiopia as a Marxist-Leninist state.[123] The abolition of feudalism, increased literacy, nationalization, and sweeping land reform including the resettlement and villagization from the Ethiopian Highlands became priorities.[124]
After a power struggle in 1977, Mengistu Halie Mariam gained undisputed leadership of the Derg.[125] In 1977, Somalia, which had previously been receiving assistance and arms from the USSR, invaded Ethiopia in the Ogaden War, capturing part of the Ogaden region. Ethiopia recovered it after it began receiving massive military aid from the Soviet bloc countries.[126][127][128] By the end of the seventies, Mengistu presided over the second-largest army in all of sub-Saharan Africa, as well as a formidable air force and navy.
In 1976–78, up to 500,000 were killed as a result of the Red Terror,[129] a violent political repression campaign by the Derg against various opposition groups.[130][131][132] In 1987, the Derg dissolved itself and established the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (PDRE) upon the adoption of the 1987 Constitution of Ethiopia.[133] A 1983–85 famine affected around 8 million people, resulting in 1 million dead. Insurrections against authoritarian rule sprang up, particularly in the northern regions of Eritrea and Tigray. The Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) merged with other ethnically based opposition movements in 1989, to form the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF).[134]
The collapse of Marxism–Leninism during the revolutions of 1989 coincided with the Soviet Union stopping aid to Ethiopia altogether in 1990.[135][136][137] EPRDF forces advanced on Addis Ababa in May 1991, and Mengistu fled the country and was granted asylum in Zimbabwe.[138][139]
Federal Democratic Republic (1991–present)
.svg)
In July 1991, the EPRDF convened a National Conference to establish the Transitional Government of Ethiopia composed of an 87-member Council of Representatives and guided by a national charter that functioned as a transitional constitution.[140] In 1994, a new constitution was written that established a parliamentary republic with a bicameral legislature and a judicial system.[141]
In April 1993, Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia after a national referendum.[142] In May 1998, a border dispute with Eritrea led to the Eritrean–Ethiopian War, which lasted until June 2000 and cost both countries an estimated $1 million a day.[143] This had a negative effect on Ethiopia's economy, and a border conflict between the two countries would continue until 2018.[144][145] As of 2018, further civil war in Ethiopia continues, mainly due to destabilization of the country.
Ethnic violence rose during the late 2010s and early 2020s,[146][147] with various clashes and conflicts leading to millions of Ethiopians being displaced.[148][149][150]
The federal government decided that elections for 2020 (later being rescheduled to 2021) be cancelled, due to health and safety concerns about COVID-19.[151] The Tigray Region's TPLF opposed this, and proceeded to hold elections anyway on 9 September 2020.[152][153] Relations between the federal government and Tigray deteriorated rapidly,[154] and in November 2020, Ethiopia began a military offensive in Tigray in response to attacks on army units stationed there, marking the beginning of the Tigray war.[155][156] By March 2022, as many as 500,000 people had died as a result of violence and famine.[157][158][159] After a number of peace and mediation proposals in the intervening years, Ethiopia and the Tigrayan rebel forces agreed to a cessation of hostilities on 2 November 2022.[160] Coupled with OLA insurgency, the federal government relations with Fano militias, who previously allied to the government in the Tigray War, deteriorated in mid-2023, resulting in a war in the Amhara Region. According to reports conducted by the Ethiopian Human Rights Commission (EHRC), mass human rights violations carried out by ENDF troops including door-to-door searches, extrajudicial killings, massacres and detentions. Notable incident includes the Merawi massacre in early 2024, which left 50 to 100 residents deaths in Merawi town in Amhara.[161][162]
Geography
At 1,104,300 square kilometres (426,372.61 sq mi),[163] Ethiopia is the world's 26th-largest country, comparable in size to Bolivia. It lies between the 3rd parallel north and the 15th parallel north and longitudes 33rd meridian east and 48th meridian east.
The major portion of Ethiopia lies in the Horn of Africa, which is the easternmost part of the African landmass. The territories that have frontiers with Ethiopia are Eritrea to the north and then, moving in a clockwise direction, Djibouti, Somalia, Kenya, South Sudan and Sudan. Within Ethiopia is a vast highland complex of mountains and dissected plateaus divided by the Great Rift Valley, which runs generally southwest to northeast and is surrounded by lowlands, steppes, or semi-desert. There is a great diversity of terrain with wide variations in climate, soils, natural vegetation and settlement patterns.
Ethiopia is an ecologically diverse country, ranging from the deserts along the eastern border to the tropical forests in the south to extensive Afromontane in the northern and southwestern parts. Lake Tana in the north is the source of the Blue Nile. It also has many endemic species, notably the gelada, the walia ibex and the Ethiopian wolf ("Simien fox"). The wide range of altitude has given the country a variety of ecologically distinct areas, and this has helped to encourage the evolution of endemic species in ecological isolation.
The nation is a land of geographical contrasts, ranging from the vast fertile west, with its forests and numerous rivers, to the world's hottest settlement of Dallol in its north. The Ethiopian Highlands are the largest continuous mountain ranges in Africa, and the Sof Omar Caves contains the largest cave on the continent. Ethiopia also has the second-largest number of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Africa.[164]
Climate
The predominant climate type is tropical monsoon, with wide topographic-induced variation. The Ethiopian Highlands cover most of the country and have a climate which is generally considerably cooler than other regions at similar proximity to the Equator. Most of the country's major cities are located at elevations of around 2,000–2,500 m (6,562–8,202 ft) above sea level, including historic capitals such as Gondar and Axum. The modern capital, Addis Ababa, is situated on the foothills of Mount Entoto at an elevation of around 2,400 metres (7,900 ft). It experiences a mild climate year round. With temperatures fairly uniform year round, the seasons in Addis Ababa are largely defined by rainfall: a dry season from October to February, a light rainy season from March to May, and a heavy rainy season from June to September. The average annual rainfall is approximately 1,200 millimetres (47 in).
There are on average seven hours of sunshine per day. The dry season is the sunniest time of the year, though even at the height of the rainy season in July and August there are still usually several hours per day of bright sunshine. The average annual temperature in Addis Ababa is 16 °C (60.8 °F), with daily maximum temperatures averaging 20–25 °C (68.0–77.0 °F) throughout the year, and overnight lows averaging 5–10 °C (41.0–50.0 °F).
Most major cities and tourist sites in Ethiopia lie at a similar elevation to Addis Ababa and have a comparable climate. In less elevated regions, particularly the lower lying Ethiopian xeric grasslands and shrublands in the east of Ethiopia, the climate can be significantly hotter and drier. Dallol, in the Danakil Depression in this eastern zone, has the world's highest average annual temperature of 34 °C (93.2 °F).
.jpg)
Ethiopia is vulnerable to many of the effects of climate change. These include increases in temperature and changes in precipitation. Climate change in these forms threatens food security and the economy, which is agriculture based.[167] Many Ethiopians have been forced to leave their homes and travel as far as the Gulf, Southern Africa and Europe.[168]
Since April 2019, the Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed has promoted Beautifying Sheger, a development project that aims to reduce the negative effects of climate change – among other things – in the capital city Addis Ababa.[169] In the following May, the government held "Dine for Sheger", a fundraising event in order to cover some of the $1 billion needed through the public.[170] $25 million was raised through the expensive event, both through the cost of attending and donations.[171] Two Chinese railway companies under the Belt and Road Initiative between China and Ethiopia had supplied funds to develop 12 of the total 56 kilometres.[172]
Biodiversity
Ethiopia is a global centre of avian diversity. To date more than 856 bird species have been recorded in Ethiopia, twenty of which are endemic to the country.[173] Sixteen species are endangered or critically endangered. Many of these birds feed on butterflies, like the Bicyclus anynana.[174][full citation needed]
Historically, throughout the African continent, wildlife populations have been rapidly declining due to logging, civil wars, pollution, poaching, and other human factors.[175] A 17-year-long civil war, along with severe drought, negatively affected Ethiopia's environmental conditions, leading to even greater habitat degradation.[176] Habitat destruction is a factor that leads to endangerment. When changes to a habitat occur rapidly, animals do not have time to adjust. Human impact threatens many species, with greater threats expected as a result of climate change induced by greenhouse gases.[177] With carbon dioxide emissions in 2010 of 6,494,000 tonnes, Ethiopia contributes just 0.02% to the annual human-caused release of greenhouse gases.[178]
Ethiopia has 31 endemic species of mammals.[179] Ethiopia has many species listed as critically endangered and vulnerable to global extinction. The threatened species in Ethiopia can be broken down into three categories (based on IUCN ratings): critically endangered, endangered, and vulnerable.[179]
Ethiopia is one of the eight fundamental and independent centres of origin for cultivated plants in the world.[180] However, deforestation is a major concern for Ethiopia as studies suggest loss of forest contributes to soil erosion, loss of nutrients in the soil, loss of animal habitats, and reduction in biodiversity. At the beginning of the 20th century, around 420,000 km2 (or 35%) of Ethiopia's land was covered by trees, but recent research indicates that forest cover is now approximately 11.9% of the area.[181] The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 7.16/10, ranking it 50th globally out of 172 countries.[182]
Ethiopia loses an estimated 1,410 km2 of natural forests each year due to firewood collection, conversion to farmland, overgrazing, and use of forest wood for building material. Between 1990 and 2005 the country lost approximately 21,000 km2 of forests.[183] Current government programs to control deforestation consist of education, promoting reforestation programs, and providing raw materials which are alternatives to timber. In rural areas the government also provides non-timber fuel sources and access to non-forested land to promote agriculture without destroying forest habitat.[184]
Organizations such as SOS and Farm Africa are working with the federal government and local governments to create a system of forest management.[185]
Government and politics
Government
Ethiopia is a federal parliamentary republic, wherein the Prime Minister is the head of government, and the President is the head of state but with largely ceremonial powers. Executive power is exercised by the government and federal legislative power vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. The House of Federation is the upper chamber of the bicameral legislature with 108 seats, and the lower chamber is the House of Peoples' Representatives (HoPR) with 547 seats. The House of Federation is chosen by the regional councils whereas MPs of the HoPR are elected directly, in turn, they elect the president for a six-year term and the prime minister for a 5-year term.
The Ethiopian judiciary consists of dual system with two court structures: the federal and state courts. The FDRE Constitution vested federal judicial authority to the Federal Supreme Court which can overturn and review decisions of subordinate federal courts; itself has regular division assigned for fundamental errors of law. In addition, the Supreme Court can perform circuit hearings in established five states at any states of federal levels or "area designated for its jurisdiction" if deemed "necessary for the efficient rendering of justice".[186][187]
The Federal Supreme Proclamation granted three subject matter principles: laws, parties and place to federal court jurisdiction, first "cases arising under the Constitution, federal laws and international treaties", second over "parties specified by federal laws".[188]
On the basis of Article 78 of the 1994 Ethiopian Constitution, the judiciary is completely independent of the executive and the legislature.[189] To ensure this, the President and Vice President of the Supreme Court are appointed by Parliament on the nomination of Prime Minister. Once elected, the executive power has no authority to remove them from office. Other judges are nominated by the Federal Judicial Administration Council (FJAC) on the basis of transparent criteria and the Prime Minister's recommendation for appointment in the HoPR. In all cases, judges cannot be removed from their duty unless they retired, violated disciplinary rules, gross incompatibility, or inefficiency to unfit due to ill health. Contrary, the majority vote of HoPR have the right to sanction removal in federal judiciary level or state council in cases of state judges.[190] In 2015, the realities of this provision were questioned in a report prepared by Freedom House.[191]
Politics
 |
.jpeg)
|
| Taye Atske Selassie President (representative head of state) |
Abiy Ahmed Prime Minister (head of government) |
Post-1995, Ethiopia's politics has been liberalized which promotes all-encompassing reforms to the country. Today, its economy is based on mixed, market-oriented principles.[190] Ethiopia has eleven semi-autonomous administrative regions that have the power to raise and spend their own revenues.[citation needed]
The first multiparty election took place in May 1995, which was won by the EPRDF.[192] The president of the transitional government, EPRDF leader Meles Zenawi, became the first Prime Minister of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, and Negasso Gidada was elected its president.[193] Meles' government was consistently re-elected; however, these results were heavily criticized by international observers, and denounced by the opposition as fraudulent.[194]
Meles died on 20 August 2012 in Brussels, where he was being treated for an unspecified illness.[195] Deputy Prime Minister Hailemariam Desalegn was appointed as a new prime minister until the 2015 elections,[196] and remained so afterwards with his party in control of every parliamentary seat.[197] On 15 February 2018, Hailemariam resigned as Prime Minister, following years of protests and a state of emergency.[198][199][200] Abiy Ahmed became prime minister following Hailemariam's resignation. He made a historic visit to Eritrea in 2018, ending the state of conflict between the two countries,[145] and was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2019.[201]
According to the Democracy Index published by the United Kingdom-based Economist Intelligence Unit in late 2010, Ethiopia was an "authoritarian regime", ranking as the 118th-most democratic out of 167 countries.[202] Ethiopia had dropped 13 places on the list since 2008, and the 2010 report attributed the drop to the government's crackdown on opposition activities, media, and civil society before the 2010 parliamentary election, which the report argued had made Ethiopia a de facto one-party state.[203]
Accompanied by pervasive internal and intercommunal conflicts in the 21st century, the Ethiopian government resorted to authoritarian structure, severing democratic and human rights.[204] Freedom House, who has worked on Ethiopia since 2008, indicates that Ethiopia is "Not Free" state due to very poor fundamental rights (political and civil liberties) recorded in both EPRDF and Prosperity Party regimes.[205][206] Under Abiy Ahmed, Ethiopia is experiencing democratic backsliding since 2019 marked by turbulent period of internal conflict, jailing opposition group members and limit media freedom.[207][208][209]
Administrative divisions
Ethiopia is administratively divided into four levels: regions, zones, woredas (districts) and kebele (wards).[210][211] The country comprises 12 regions and two city administrations under these regions, plenty of zones, woredas and neighbourhood administration: kebeles. The two federal-level city administrations are Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa.[212]
Foreign relations
Ethiopia was historically a trading nation that exported goods such as gold, ivory, exotic animals, and incense.[213] Modern Ethiopian foreign relations began under Emperor Tewodros II, who during his reign sought to re-establish a cohesive Ethiopian state, but was thwarted by the British expedition of 1868.[214] Since then, the country was seen redundant by world powers until the opening of Suez Canal due to an influence of Mahdist War.[215][clarification needed]
Today, Ethiopia maintains strong relations with China, Israel, Mexico, Turkey and India as well as neighboring countries. Ethiopia is a strategic partner of Global War on Terrorism and African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA).[216] US. Former U.S. President Barack Obama was the first incumbent U.S. president to visit Ethiopia in July 2015; the speech he gave in African Union during this trip focused on combatting Islamic terrorism.[217][218] Emigration from Ethiopia is primarily directed towards Europe, including Italy, the United Kingdom and Sweden, as well as Canada and Australia, while emigration to the Middle East is primarily to Saudi Arabia and Israel. Ethiopia is founding member of the Group of 24 (G-24), the Non-Aligned Movement and the G77. In 1963, the Organization of African Unity, which later renamed itself the African Union, was founded in Addis Ababa, which today hosts the secretariat of the African Union, the African Union Commission. In addition, Ethiopia is also a member of the Pan African Chamber of Commerce and Industry, the United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, the African Standby Force[219] and many of global NGOs focused on Africa.
Ethiopia's foreign relations with both Sudan and Egypt are somewhat fraught owing to the effects the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam project, which was escalated in 2020, would have on water rights in the region.[220][221] Despite six upstream countries (Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania) signing the Nile Basin Initiative in 2010, Egypt and Sudan rejected a water sharing treaty, citing the reduction of amount of water to the Nile Basin and the challenge it would pose to their historic connection of water rights.[222][223] In 2020, Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed warned that "No force can stop Ethiopia from building a dam. If there is need to go to war, we could get millions readied."[224]
Ethiopia is one of the African countries that was a founding member of League of Nations, which served as the predecessor for the United Nations, since 1923. UN taskforces in Ethiopia deal primarily with humanitarian issues and development. Some of its agencies[which?] maintain regional ties with United Nations Economic Commission for Africa and the African Union. The UN prioritizes sustainable development in Ethiopia, including fighting poverty, sustainable economic growth, climate change policy, educational and healthcare provisions, increasing employment, and environmental protection.[225]
Military
The Ethiopian army's origins and military traditions date back to the earliest history of Ethiopia. Due to Ethiopia's location between the Middle East and Africa, it has long been in the middle of Eastern and Western politics and has been subject to foreign invasions. In 1579, the Ottoman Empire's attempt to expand from a coastal base at Massawa during the Ottoman conquest of Habesh was defeated.[226] The Army of the Ethiopian Empire was also able to defeat the Egyptians in 1876 at Gura, led by Ethiopian Emperor Yohannes IV.[227] Ethiopia only has 3 branches inside the military, consisting of the Army, Airforce, and a Navy although it is landlocked. With an annual budget of over $1 billion dollars, it is the largest armed force in East Africa, and one of the largest in Africa.[228][229]
Law enforcement
Ethiopia has two main federal law enforcement agencies at the federal level, to which being the Ethiopian Federal Police, and the National Intelligence Security Service. The NISS serving both as a spy agency and domestic law enforcement agency has national jurisdiction for counterterrorism, and foreign related counter espionage activities and protecting national security. It also has authority related to international economic crimes related of which to Ethiopia as a whole.[230][231] It alongside the EFP (Ethiopian Federal Police) who both enforce federal laws domestically and for the National Intelligence Security Service cooperate internationally and enforce border regulations and peoples and products coming in and out in Ethiopia.[232] The EFP mostly enforcing non-international, and non-espionage crimes, enforcing civil rights related subjects of matter and domestic financial crimes. At the regional level Ethiopia has 12 regionals statewide police departments, and 2 federally chartered police forces, those being the Addis Ababa Police, and Dire Dawa Police forces.[233][234]
Economy
Ethiopia registered the fastest economic growth under Meles Zenawi's administration.[235] According to the IMF, Ethiopia was one of the fastest growing economies in the world, registering over 10% economic growth from 2004 through 2009.[236] It was the fastest-growing non-oil-dependent African economy in the years 2007 and 2008.[237] In 2015, the World Bank highlighted that Ethiopia had witnessed rapid economic growth with real domestic product (GDP) growth averaging 10.9% between 2004 and 2014.[238]
In 2008 and 2011, Ethiopia's growth performance and considerable development gains were challenged by high inflation and a difficult balance of payments situation. Inflation surged to 40% in August 2011 because of loose monetary policy, large civil service wage increase in early 2011, and high food prices.[239]
In spite of fast growth in recent years, GDP per capita is one of the lowest in the world, and the economy faces a number of serious structural problems. However, with a focused investment in public infrastructure and industrial parks, Ethiopia's economy is addressing its structural problems to become a hub for light manufacturing in Africa.[240] In 2019 a law was passed allowing expatriate Ethiopians to invest in Ethiopia's financial service industry.[241]
The Ethiopian constitution specifies that rights to own land belong only to "the state and the people", but citizens may lease land for up to 99 years, but are unable to mortgage or sell. Renting out land for a maximum of twenty years is allowed and this is expected to ensure that land goes to the most productive user. Land distribution and administration is considered an area where corruption is institutionalized, and facilitation payments as well as bribes are often demanded when dealing with land-related issues.[242] As there is no land ownership, infrastructural projects are most often simply done without asking the land users, which then end up being displaced and without a home or land. A lot of anger and distrust sometimes results in public protests. In addition, agricultural productivity remains low, and frequent droughts still beset the country, also leading to internal displacement.[243]
Energy and hydropower
Ethiopia has 14 major rivers flowing from its highlands, including the Nile. It has the largest water reserves in Africa. As of 2012[update], hydroelectric plants represented around 88.2% of the total installed electricity generating capacity.
The remaining electrical power was generated from fossil fuels (8.3%) and renewable sources (3.6%).
The electrification rate for the total population in 2016 was 42%, with 85% coverage in urban areas and 26% coverage in rural areas. As of 2016[update], total electricity production was 11.15 TW⋅h and consumption was 9.062 TW⋅h. There were 0.166 TW⋅h of electricity exported, 0 kW⋅h imported, and 2.784 GW of installed generating capacity.[17] Ethiopia delivers roughly 81% of water volume to the Nile through the river basins of the Blue Nile, Sobat River and Atbara. In 1959, Egypt and Sudan signed a bilateral treaty, the 1959 Nile Waters Agreement, which gave both countries exclusive maritime rights over the Nile waters. Ever since, Egypt has discouraged almost all projects in Ethiopia that sought to use the local Nile tributaries. This had the effect of discouraging external financing of hydropower and irrigation projects in western Ethiopia, thereby impeding water resource-based economic development projects. However, Ethiopia is in the process of constructing a large 6,450 MW hydroelectric dam on the Blue Nile river. When completed, this Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam is slated to be the largest hydroelectric power station in Africa.[244] The Gibe III hydroelectric project is so far the largest in the country with an installed capacity of 1,870 MW. For the year 2017–18 (2010 E.C) this hydroelectric dam generated 4,900 GW⋅h.[245]
Agriculture
Agriculture constitutes around 85% of the labour force. However, the service sector represents the largest portion of the GDP.[17] Many other economic activities depend on agriculture, including marketing, processing, and export of agricultural products. Production is overwhelmingly by small-scale farmers and enterprises, and a large part of commodity exports are provided by the small agricultural cash-crop sector. Principal crops include coffee, legumes, oilseeds, cereals, potatoes, sugarcane, and vegetables. Ethiopia is also a Vavilov centre of diversity for domesticated crops, including enset,[246] coffee Okra and teff.
Exports are almost entirely agricultural commodities (with the exception of gold exports), and coffee is the largest foreign exchange earner. Ethiopia is Africa's second biggest maize producer.[247] According to UN estimations, the per capita GDP of Ethiopia has reached $357 as of 2011[update].[248]
Exports
.jpg)
Ethiopia is often considered as the birthplace of coffee since cultivation began in the 9th century.[252] Exports from Ethiopia in the 2009–2010 financial year totalled US$1.4 billion.[253] Ethiopia produces more coffee than any other nation on the continent.[254] "Coffee provides a livelihood for close to 15 million Ethiopians, 16% of the population. Farmers in the eastern part of the country, where a warming climate is already impacting production, have struggled in recent years, and many are currently reporting largely failed harvests as a result of a prolonged drought".[255]
Ethiopia also has the fifth largest inventory of cattle.[256] Other main export commodities are khat, gold, leather products, and oilseeds. Recent development of the floriculture sector means Ethiopia is poised to become one of the top flower and plant exporters in the world.[257]
Cross-border trade by pastoralists is often informal and beyond state control and regulation. In East Africa, over 95% of cross-border trade is through unofficial channels. The unofficial trade of live cattle, camels, sheep, and goats from Ethiopia sold to Somalia, Djibouti, and Kenya generates an estimated total value of US$250–300 million annually (100 times more than the official figure).[258]
This trade helps lower food prices, increase food security, relieve border tensions, and promote regional integration.[258] However, the unregulated and undocumented nature of this trade runs risks, such as allowing disease to spread more easily across national borders. Furthermore, the government of Ethiopia is purportedly unhappy with lost tax revenue and foreign exchange revenues.[258] Recent initiatives have sought to document and regulate this trade.[258]
With the private sector growing slowly, designer leather products like bags are becoming a big export business, with Taytu becoming the first luxury designer label in the country.[259] Additional small-scale export products include cereals, pulses, cotton, sugarcane, potatoes, and hides. With the construction of various new dams and growing hydroelectric power projects around the country, Ethiopia also plans to export electric power to its neighbours.[260][261]
Most regard Ethiopia's large water resources and potential as its "white oil" and its coffee resources as "black gold".[262][263]
Transport
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Ethiopia: the Cairo-Cape Town Highway and the N'Djamena-Djibouti Highway. Ethiopia has 926 km of electrified 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) standard gauge railways, 656 km for the Addis Ababa–Djibouti Railway between Addis Ababa and the Port of Djibouti (via Awash)[264] and 270 km for the Awash–Hara Gebeya Railway between Addis Ababa and the twin cities of Dessie/Kombolcha.[265]
Ethiopia had 58 airports as of 2012[update],[17] and 61 as of 2016[update].[266] Among these, the Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa and the Aba Tenna Dejazmach Yilma International Airport in Dire Dawa accommodate international flights.
Science and technology
.JPG)
Science and technology in Ethiopia emerging as progressive due to lack of organized institutions. Manufacturing and service providers often place themselves in competitive programming in order to advance innovative and technological solutions through in-house arenas.[clarification needed] The Ethiopian Space Science and Technology is responsible for conducting multifaceted tasks regarding space and technology. In addition, Ethiopia also launched 70 kg ET-RSS1 multi-spectral remote sensing satellite in December 2019. The President Sahle-Work Zewde told prior in October 2019 that "the satellite will provide all the necessary data on changes in climate and weather-related phenomena that would be used for the country's key targets in agriculture, forestry as well as natural resources protection initiatives." By January 2020, satellite manufacturing, assembling, integrating and testing began. This would also incremented facility built by French company funded by European Investment Bank (EIB). The main observatory Entoto Observatory and Space Science Research Center (EORC) allocated space programmes. The Ethiopian Biotechnology Institute is a part of Scientific Research & Development Services Industry, responsible for environmental and climate conservation.[269] Numerous profound scientists have contributed degree of honours and reputations. Some are Kitaw Ejigu, Mulugeta Bekele, Aklilu Lemma, Gebisa Ejeta and Melaku Worede. Computer scientist Timnit Gebru, named one of Time's most influential people in 2022, was born in Ethiopia.[270]
Ethiopia is known for use of traditional medicine since millennia. The first epidemic occurred in Ethiopia was in 849, causing the Aksumite Emperor Abba Yohannes evicted from place due to "God's punishment for misdeeds". The first traditional medicine was claimed to be derived from this catastrophe, but the exact source is debated. Though differ from ethnic groups, traditional medicine often implements herbs, spiritual healing, bone-setting and minor surgical procedures in treating disease.[271]
Ethiopia was ranked 130th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.[272]
Demographics
Ethiopia is the most populous landlocked country in the world.[273] Its total population has grown from 38.1 million in 1983 to 109.5 million in 2018.[274] According to UN estimations in 2013, life expectancy had improved substantially over time, with male life expectancy reported to be 56 years and for women 60 years.[248]
Ethiopia's population is highly diverse, containing over 80 different ethnic groups, the four largest of which are the Oromo, Amhara, Somali and Tigrayans. According to the Ethiopian national census of 2007, the Oromo are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, at 34.4% of the nation's population. The Amhara represent 27.0% of the country's inhabitants, while Somalis and Tigrayans represent 6.2% and 6.1% of the population respectively.[6]
Afroasiatic-speaking communities make up the majority of the population. Among these, Semitic speakers often collectively refer to themselves as the Habesha people. The Arabic form of this term (al-Ḥabasha) is the etymological basis of "Abyssinia", the former name of Ethiopia in English and other European languages.[275]
In 2009, Ethiopia hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 135,200. The majority of this population came from Somalia (approximately 64,300 persons), Eritrea (41,700) and Sudan (25,900). The Ethiopian government required nearly all refugees to live in refugee camps.[276]
Urbanization
Population growth, migration, and urbanization are all straining both governments' and ecosystems' capacity to provide people with basic services.[277] Urbanization has steadily been increasing in Ethiopia, with two periods of significantly rapid growth. First, in 1936–1941 during the Italian occupation under Mussolini's fascist government, and then from 1967 to 1975 when the populations of urban areas tripled.[278]
In 1936, Italy annexed Ethiopia, building infrastructure to connect major cities, and a dam providing power and water.[279] This, along with the influx of Italians and labourers, was the major cause of rapid growth during this period. The second period of growth was from 1967 to 1975, when rural populations migrated to towns seeking work and better living conditions.[278]
This pattern slowed due to the 1975 Land Reform program instituted by the government, which provided incentives for people to stay in rural areas. As people moved from rural areas to the cities, there were fewer people to grow food for the population. The Land Reform Act was meant to increase agriculture since food production was not keeping up with population growth over the period of 1970–1983. This program encouraged the formation of peasant associations, large villages based on agriculture. The legislation did lead to an increase in food production, although there is debate over the cause; it may be related to weather conditions more than the reform.[280] Urban populations have continued to grow with an 8.1% increase from 1975 to 2000.[281]
Largest cities or towns in Ethiopia CSA (Urban population projection values of 2016)[282] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
.jpg)
As of at least 2024, Ethiopia is one of the most rapidly urbanizing countries in the world, although its population is still largely rural.[283]
Rural and urban life
Migration to urban areas is usually motivated by the hope of better lives. In peasant associations, daily life is a struggle to survive. About 16% of the population in Ethiopia lives on less than one dollar per day (2008). Only 65% of rural households in Ethiopia consume the World Health Organization's (WHO's) minimum standard of food per day (2,200 kilocalories), with 42% of children under five years old being underweight.[284]
Most poor families (75%) share their sleeping quarters with livestock, and 40% of children sleep on the floor, where nighttime temperatures average 5 degrees Celsius in the cold season.[284] The average family size is six or seven, living in a 30 square metre mud and thatch hut, with less than two hectares of land to cultivate.[284]
The peasant associations face a cycle of poverty. Since the landholdings are so small, farmers cannot allow the land to lie fallow, which reduces soil fertility.[284] This land degradation reduces the production of fodder for livestock, which causes low milk yields.[284] Since the community burns livestock manure as fuel, rather than plowing the nutrients back into the land, the crop production is reduced.[284] The low productivity of agriculture leads to inadequate incomes for farmers, hunger, malnutrition and disease. These unhealthy farmers have difficulty working the land and the productivity drops further.[284]
Although conditions are drastically better in cities, all of Ethiopia suffers from poverty and poor sanitation. However, poverty in Ethiopia fell from 44% to 29.6% during 2000–2011, according to the World Bank.[285] In the capital city of Addis Ababa, 55% of the population used to live in slums.[279] Now, however, a construction boom in both the private and the public sector has led to a dramatic improvement in living standards in major cities, particularly in Addis Ababa. Notably, government-built condominium housing complexes have sprung up throughout the city, benefiting close to 600,000 individuals.[286] Sanitation is the most pressing need in the city, with most of the population lacking access to waste treatment facilities. This contributes to the spread of illness through unhealthy water.[279]
Despite the living conditions in the cities, the people of Addis Ababa are much better off than people living in the peasant associations owing to their educational opportunities. Unlike rural children, 69% of urban children are enrolled in primary school, and 35% of those are eligible to attend secondary school.[clarification needed][279] Addis Ababa has its own university as well as many other secondary schools. The literacy rate is 82%.[279]
Many NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations) are working to solve this problem; however, most are far apart, uncoordinated, and working in isolation.[281] The Sub-Saharan Africa NGO Consortium is attempting to coordinate efforts.[281]
Languages
According to Glottolog, there are 109 languages spoken in Ethiopia, while Ethnologue lists 90 individual languages spoken in the country.[287][288] Most people in the country speak Afroasiatic languages of the Cushitic or Semitic branches. The former includes the Oromo language, spoken by the Oromo, and Somali, spoken by the Somalis; the latter includes Amharic, spoken by the Amhara, and Tigrinya, spoken by the Tigrayans. Together, these four groups make up about three-quarters of Ethiopia's population. Other Afroasiatic languages with a significant number of speakers include the Cushitic Sidamo, Afar, Hadiyya and Agaw languages, as well as the Semitic Gurage languages, Harari, Silt'e, and Argobba languages.[6] Arabic, which also belongs to the Afroasiatic family, is likewise spoken in some areas.[289]
English is the most widely spoken foreign language, the medium of instruction in secondary schools and all tertiary education; federal laws are also published in British English in the Federal Negarit Gazeta including the 1995 constitution.[290]
Amharic was the language of primary school instruction, but has been replaced in many areas by regional languages such as Oromo, Somali or Tigrinya.[291] All languages enjoy equal state recognition in the 1995 Constitution of Ethiopia.[141]
Script
Ethiopia's principal orthography is the Ge'ez script. Employed as an abugida for several of the country's languages, it first came into usage in the 6th and 5th centuries BC as an abjad to transcribe the Semitic Ge'ez language.[292] Ge'ez now serves as the liturgical language of both the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Churches. During the 1980s, the Ethiopic character set was computerized. It is today part of the Unicode standard as Ethiopic, Ethiopic Extended, Ethiopic Supplement and Ethiopic Extended-A.
Other writing systems have also been used over the years by different Ethiopian communities. The latter include Bakri Sapalo's script for Oromo.[293]
Religion
According to the 2007 National Census, Christians make up 62.8% of the country's population, Muslims 33.9%, practitioners of traditional faiths 2.6%, and other religions 0.6%.[6] The ratio of the Christian to Muslim population has largely remained stable when compared to previous censuses conducted decades ago.[295] Sunnis form the majority of Muslims with non-denominational Muslims being the second largest group of Muslims, and the Shia are a minority. Sunnis are largely Shafi'is or Salafis; there are also many Sufis there.[296]
Ethiopia has close historical ties with all three of the world's major Abrahamic religions. In the 4th century, the Ethiopian empire was one of the first in the world to officially adopt Christianity as the state religion. As a result of the resolutions of the Council of Chalcedon, in 451 the Miaphysites, which included the vast majority of Christians in Egypt and Ethiopia, were accused of monophysitism and designated as heretics under the common name of Coptic Christianity (see Oriental Orthodoxy).[297]
The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is part of Oriental Orthodoxy. It is by far the largest Christian denomination, although a number of P'ent'ay (Protestant) churches have recently gained ground. Since 1930, a relatively small Ethiopian Catholic Church has existed in full communion with Rome, with adherents making up less than 1% of the total population.[295][298]
Islam in Ethiopia dates back to the founding of the religion in 622 when a group of Muslims were counselled by Muhammad to escape persecution in Mecca. The disciples subsequently migrated to Abyssinia via modern-day Eritrea, which was at the time ruled by Ashama ibn-Abjar, a pious Christian emperor.[299]
Health
Only a minority of Ethiopians are born in hospitals, while most are born in rural households. Those who are expected to give birth at home have elderly women serve as midwives who assist with the delivery.[300] The "WHO estimates that a majority of maternal fatalities and disabilities could be prevented if deliveries were to take place at well-equipped health centres, with adequately trained staff".[301] Birth rates, infant mortality rates, and death rates are lower in cities than in rural areas due to better access to education, medicines, and hospitals.[279] Life expectancy is better in cities compared to rural areas, but there have been significant improvements witnessed throughout the country as of 2016, the average Ethiopian living to be 62.2 years old, according to a UNDP report.[302] Despite sanitation being a problem, use of improved water sources is also on the rise; 81% in cities compared to 11% in rural areas.[281]
Ethiopia's main health problems are said to be communicable (contagious) diseases worsened by poor sanitation and malnutrition. Over 58 million people (nearly half the population) do not have access to clean water as of 2023.[303] These problems are exacerbated by the shortage of trained doctors and nurses and health facilities.[304] The World Health Organization's 2006 World Health Report gives a figure of 1,936 physicians (for 2003), which comes to about 2.6 per 100,000.[305]
The National Mental Health Strategy, published in 2012, introduced the development of policy designed to improve mental health care in Ethiopia. This strategy mandated that mental health be integrated into the primary health care system.[306] However, the success of the National Mental Health Strategy has been limited. For example, the burden of depression is estimated to have increased 34.2% from 2007 to 2017.[307] Furthermore, the prevalence of stigmatizing attitudes, inadequate leadership and co-ordination of efforts, as well as a lack of mental health awareness in the general population, all remain as obstacles to successful mental health care.[308]
In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Ethiopia ranks 102nd out of 127 countries and has a score of 26.2, which indicates a serious level of hunger.[309]
Education
The current system follows school expansion schemes which are very similar to the system in the rural areas during the 1980s, with an addition of deeper regionalization, providing rural education in students' own languages starting at the elementary level, and with more budgetary financing allocated to the education sector. Public education is free at primary levels and usually offers between age 7 and 12. The sequence of general education in Ethiopia is six years of primary school, then four years of lower secondary school followed by two years of higher secondary school.[310]
The Ethiopian education is governed by the Ministry of Education and its cycle consists of a 4+4+2+2 system; elementary education consists of eight years, divided into two cycles of four years, and four years of secondary education, divided into two stages of two years.[311] National exams are conducted by the National Education Assessment and Examination Agency (NEAEA). Since 2018, there are two national exams: the Ethiopian General Secondary Education Certificate Examination (EGSECE), also known as Grade 10 national exam and Grade 12 national exam.[312]
As of 2022, there are 83 universities, 42 public universities, and more than 35 higher education institutions. Foreign students constitute 16,305 in higher education level. The overall number of tertiary students in both public and private institutions exploded by more than 2,000 percent, from 34,000 in 1991 to 757,000 in 2014, per UIS data.[313][314] Access to education in Ethiopia has improved significantly. Approximately three million people were in primary school in 1994–95 but by 2008–09, primary enrolment had risen to 15.5 million – an increase of over 500%.[315] In 2013–14, Ethiopia had witnessed a significant boost in gross enrolment across all regions.[316] The national GER was 104.8% for boys, 97.8% for girls and 101.3% across both sexes.[317]
The literacy rate has increased in recent years: according to the 1994 census, the literacy rate in Ethiopia was 23.4%.[288] In 2007 it was estimated to be 39% (male 49.1% and female 28.9%).[318] A report by UNDP in 2011 showed that the literacy rate in Ethiopia was 46.7%. The same report also indicated that the female literacy rate had increased from 27 to 39 per cent from 2004 to 2011, and the male literacy rate had increased from 49 to 59 per cent over the same period for persons 10 years and older.[319] By 2015, the literacy rate had further increased, to 49.1% (57.2% male and 41.1% female).[320]
Culture
.jpg)
Ethiopia's culture heavily influenced by the local population, an interaction of Semitic, Cushitic and less populous Nilo-Saharan speaking people, which evolved from first millennium BC. Semitic Tigrayans and Amharas, who dominated the politics in the past, distinguished from other population by hierarchical structure and agrarian life derived partly from South Arabia as a result of back migration, while the southern Cushitic (Oromo and Somali) are strong adherents to egalitarianism and pastoral life. Others including Kaffa, Sidamo, and Afar tradition derived from the latter people.[321]
Holidays
Ethiopia has 6 patriotic and public holidays and 9 major religious holidays given government recognition. The year (Gregorian calendar) starts with Ethiopian Christmas on January 7, it also has Epiphany or Timkat on January 19 or 20 depending on if the year is a leap, which celebrate the baptism of Jesus Christ by John the Baptist. Timkat is recognized by the United Nation's as part of its "Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists" which are designated for important cultural and religious holidays.[322][323] Three holidays are movable like Ramadan, Good Friday and Easter of which two are in spring and Ramadan in Islamic celebrations. Other holidays include Mawlid which begins on the 12th or 17th on the Islamic calendar depending on which Muslim denomination is the celebrator, nonetheless due to the fact the majority of Ethiopian Muslims are Sunni it is thus celebrated on the 12th day on the third month on the Islamic calendar which is in September. Other include Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha for other Islamic holidays whilst for Christians, the finding of the true cross or otherwise called Meskel.[324][325][326]
For public holidays the first of which falls on the calendar is Adwa Victory Day on 2 March, commemorating Emperor Menelik II's victory over the attempted but failed colonization efforts of Italy in 1896. Other's following such as the International Workers' Day on the 1st of May, the Ethiopian Patriots' Victory Day for celebrating the return of Emperor Haile Selassie I and thus the liberation of fascist Italian occupation on the 5th of May and the Downfall of the Derg on the 28th of May, a recent holiday promoted to a public status by the ruling government after 1991. And the most prominent of public holidays is Enkutatash which is the largest, celebrating the Ethiopian new year on September 11 or 12, which is approximately 7–8 years behind the rest of the world, depending on if the year is a leap, and thus behind ultimately the Georgian calendar by several years. Defense Day also exists for celebrating service men on the 26th of October the last holiday in the Gregorian calendar.[327]
Nonetheless other festivals and holidays like the honoring of Saint Yohannes and others are celebrated across the country including Irrecha celebrated by the Oromo community.[328][329]
Art and architecture
Arts of Ethiopia were largely influenced by Christian iconography throughout much of its history. This consisted of illuminated manuscripts, painting, crosses, icons and other metalwork such as crowns. Most historical arts were commissioned by the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, the state religion for a millennium. The earlier Aksumite period arts were stone carvings as evidenced in their stelae, though there is no surviving Christian art from this era. As Christianity was introduced, its iconography was partly influenced by Byzantine art. Most remaining arts beyond the early modern period were ruined as a result of invasion of the Adal Sultanate in the Ethiopian Highlands, but were revived by Catholic emissaries. The Western intervention in Ethiopian art began in the 20th century, while also maintaining traditional Ethiopian character. Some notable contemporary Ethiopian artists include Afewerk Tekle, Lemma Guya, Martha Nasibù, Ale Felege Selam and others.[330][331]
.jpg)
Ethiopian architecture like the "Bete Medhane Alem" or "House of our Saviour" is one of the 12 churches in Lalibela built under Emperor Lalibela I. Emperor Lalibela I commissioned large portions of the Lalibela church complex promptly named after him. This was largely attested to the inspiration for Ethiopia during the medieval times due to blockage from Jerusalem by Muslim conquests to replicate its own form of a "new Jerusalem" at a national level. Perhaps one of the most notable architectures in antiquity was founded during the Dʿmt period. Ashlar masonry was an archetype of South Arabian architecture with most architectural structure similarity.[332][333]
The Aksumite continued to flourish its architecture around the 4th century CE. Aksumite stelae commonly used single block and rocks. The Tomb of the False Door built for Aksumite emperors used monolithic style.[334] The Lalibela civilization was largely of Aksumite influence, but the layer of stones or wood is quite different for some dwellings.[335]
In the Gondarine period, the architecture of Ethiopia was influenced by Baroque, Arab, Turkish and Gujarati Indian styles independently taught by Portuguese emissaries in the 16th and 17th centuries. Examples include the imperial fortress Fasil Ghebbi, which is influenced by a mix of these styles. The medieval architecture also affected the later 19th- and 20th-century era.[336]
Literature
Ethiopian literature traces back to the Aksumite period in the 4th century, mostly religious motifs. In royal inscription, it employed both Ge'ez and Greek language, but the latter was discontinued in 350. Unlike most Sub-Saharan African countries, Ethiopia has ancient distinct language, the Ge'ez, which dominated political and educational aspects. In spite of the current political instability in the country endangering cultural heritage of these works, preservation has improved in recent years.[339]
During and the approximate time of the Middle Ages composers such as Abba Gorgoryos and Giyorgis of Segla have influenced Ethiopian languages such as writing one of the earliest instances of Amharic and dictionaries of Ge'ez and such. Also encompassing religious hymns and doctrine justifications regarding issues in the Ethiopian Orthodox church and practices.[340][341]
The Ethiopian literary works mostly consisted of handwritten codex (branna, or ብራና in Amharic). It is prepared by gathering parchment leaves and sewing to stick together. The codex size varies considerably depending on volumes and preparation. For example, pocket size codex lengthens 45 cm, which is heavier in weight. Historians speculated that archaic codex existed in Ethiopia. Today manuscripts resembling primitive codex are still evident for existence where parchment leaves are convenient for writing.[339]
Another notable writing book is protective (or magic) scroll, serving as written amulet. Some of these were intended for magical purpose, for example ketab is used for magical defence. Scrolls were typically produced by debtera, non-ordained clergy expertise on exorcism and healings. About 30 cm scroll is portable whereas 2 cm is often unrolled and hanged to the walls of houses. Scrolls emulating original medium of Ethiopia literature is highly disputed, where there is overwhelming evidence that Ge'ez language books were written in codex. In lesser, Ethiopia used accordion books (called sensul) which were dated to late 15th or 16th century, made up of folded parchment paper, with or without cover. Those books usually contain pictorial representation of life and death of religious figures, or significant texts have also juxtaposed.[339]
Baalu Girma and Haddis Alemayehu have been noted as the most influential novelist in Ethiopian history. Girma giving a critique of the communist government in the 80s in Ethiopia in his works. Haddis Alemayehu giving rise to one of the first examinations of realism and a romance tragedy in his works of novel and having influenced the sphere of Ethiopian intellectual community.[342][343]
Ethiopia is highly popularized in poetry. Most poets recount past events, social unrests, poverty and famine. Qene is the most used element of Ethiopian poetry – regarded as a form of Amharic poetry, though the term generally refers to any poems. True qene requires advanced ingenious mindset. By providing two metaphorical words, i.e. one with obvious clues and the other is too convoluted conundrum, one must answer parallel meanings. Thus, this is called sem ena work (gold and wax).[344] The most notable poets are Tsegaye Gebre-Medhin, Kebede Michael and Mengistu Lemma.
Ethiopian philosophy has been superlatively prolific since ancient times in Africa, though offset of Greek and Patristic philosophy. The best known philosophical revival was in the early modern period figures such as Zera Yacob (1599–1692) and his student Walda Heywat, who wrote Hatata (Inquiry) in 1667 as an argument for the existence of God.
Music
The music of Ethiopia is extremely diverse, with each of the country's 80 ethnic groups being associated with unique sounds. Ethiopian music uses a distinct modal system that is pentatonic, with characteristically long intervals between some notes. As with many other aspects of Ethiopian culture and tradition, tastes in music and lyrics are strongly linked with those in neighbouring Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti, and Sudan.[345][346] Traditional singing in Ethiopia presents diverse styles of polyphony (heterophony, drone, imitation, and counterpoint). Traditionally, lyricism in Ethiopian song writing is strongly associated with views of patriotism or national pride, romance, friendship, and a unique type of memoire known as tizita.
Saint Yared, a 6th-century Aksumite composer, is widely regarded as the forerunner of traditional music of Eritrea and Ethiopia, creating liturgical music of the Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church.[347]
Modern music is traced back to the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, where 40 Armenian orphans called Arba Lijoch arrived from Jerusalem to Addis Ababa. By 1924, the band was almost established as orchestral; but after World War II, several similar bands emerged such as Imperial Bodyguard Band, Army Band, and Police Band.[348]
In the 1960s and 1970s, traditional infused modern Ethiopian music was revived in what is known as the "Golden Age". Several notable musical artists emerged thereafter, for example, Tilahun Gessesse, Alemayehu Eshete, Bizunesh Bekele, Muluken Melesse and Mahmoud Ahmed. It also employed tradition style called tizita. During the Derg regime, these artists were prohibited to perform in the country and often forced into exile in North America and Europe, mixing with jazz and funk influences. For example, Roha Band, Walias Band, and Ethio Stars. By this time, Neway Debebe was critical of the Derg government.[344]
Modern music became developed shortly in the 1990s and 2000s. In this period, the most popular artists were Aster Aweke, Gigi and Teddy Afro. Ethiopian music further modernized in the next decade, employing electronic type and more popular. DJ Rophnan was renowned for pioneering EDM after releasing his debut album Reflection in 2018.[344]
Calendar
Ethiopia has several local calendars. The most widely known is the Ethiopian calendar, also known as the Ge'ez calendar, and written with the ancient Ge'ez script, one of the oldest alphabets still in use in the world.[349] It is based on the older Alexandrian or Coptic calendar, which in turn derives from the Egyptian calendar. Like the Coptic calendar, the Ethiopian calendar has twelve months of exactly 30 days each plus five or six epagomenal days, which form a thirteenth month. The Ethiopian months begin on the same days as those of the Coptic calendar, but their names are in Ge'ez.[350]
Like the Julian calendar, the sixth epagomenal day—which in essence is a leap day—is added every four years without exception on 29 August of the Julian calendar, six months before the Julian leap day. Thus, the first day of the Ethiopian year, 1 Mäskäräm, for years between 1901 and 2099 (inclusive), is usually 11 September (Gregorian), but falls on 12 September in years before the Gregorian leap year. It is approximately seven years and three months behind the Gregorian calendar because of an alternate calculation in determining the date of the Annunciation of Jesus.[351]
Another calendrical system was developed around 300 BC by the Oromo people. A lunar-stellar calendar, this Oromo calendar relies on astronomical observations of the moon in conjunction with seven particular stars or constellations. Oromo months (stars/lunar phases) are Bittottessa (Iangulum), Camsa (Pleiades), Bufa (Aldebarran), Waxabajjii (Belletrix), Obora Gudda (Central Orion-Saiph), Obora Dikka (Sirius), Birra (full moon), Cikawa (gibbous moon), Sadasaa (quarter moon), Abrasa (large crescent), Ammaji (medium crescent), and Gurrandala (small crescent).[352]
Media
The Ethiopian Broadcasting Corporation (EBC), formerly known as ETV, is the state media. Radio broadcasting was commenced earlier in 1935 before the television service began in 1962 with assistance of British firm Thomson and Emperor Haile Selassie.[3] Since 2015, EBC has upgraded its studios with modernized transmission.
Kana TV is the most popular TV channel in Ethiopia.[353] It is mainly known for dubbing foreign content into Amharic. Over several decades, the state television has served as the major mass media until in the late 2000s, when EBS TV launched as the first private television channel. Moreover, numerous private channels were commenced in 2016, culminating in the growth of privately owned media companies in the country. As an example, Fana TV has been the largest TV network since its launch in 2017.
The most widely circulated newspapers in Ethiopia are Addis Fortune, Capital Ethiopia, Ethiopian Reporter, Addis Zemen (Amharic) and Ethiopian Herald.[354]
The sole internet service provider is the national telecommunications firm Ethio telecom. A large portion of users in the country access the internet through mobile devices.[355] As of July 2016[update], there are around 4.29 million people who have internet access at their home as compared to a quarter of a million users a decade before that.[356] The Ethiopian government has at times intentionally shut down internet service in the country or restricted access to certain social media sites during periods of political unrest. In August 2016, following protest and demonstration in the Oromia Region, all access to the internet was shut down for a period of two days.[357] In June 2017, the government shut down access to the internet for mobile users during a period that coincided with the administration of university entrance examination. Although the reason for the restriction was not confirmed by the government,[355] the move was similar to a measure taken during the same period in 2016, after a leak of test questions.[358][359]
Cinema
The first cinema was introduced in 1898, three years after the first world film was projected. Cinematic artifacts ascribed by Italian minister Federico Ciccodicola which then offered to Emperor Menelik II. The early 20th century appearance with spectacle was around 1909 and embraced by documentary or biographical films. Au de Menilek was the first film directed by Charles Martel. The first 16mm black-and-white film dedicated to coronation of Emperor Zewditu, then coronation of Emperor Haile Selassie was filmed. The 1990s saw international booming of Ethiopian films. The most influential people in this era were Haile Gerima, Salem Mekuria, Yemane Demissie, and Teshome Gabriel. Films began modernized in the 2000s and implemented Amharic language. The most internationally grossed films are Selanchi, Difret, Lamb, Prince of Love and Lambadina. The modern era saw several reoccurring actors including Selam Tesfaye, Fryat Yemane, Hanan Tarik, Mahder Assefa, Amleset Muchie and Ruth Negga.
One of the most prestigious film award is Gumma Film Awards held in Addis Ababa. The award, which was started in 2014, broadcast on live television in some stations.[360] Festivals including Addis International Film Festival and the Ethiopian International Film Festival showcase amateur and professional filmmakers works; the latter being voted by judges. They were established in 2007[361] and 2005 respectively.[362]
Cuisine
The best-known Ethiopian cuisine consists of various types of thick meat stews, known as wat in Ethiopian culture, and vegetable side dishes served on top of injera, a large sourdough flatbread made of teff flour. This is not eaten with utensils, but instead the injera is used to scoop up the entrées and side dishes. Almost universally in Ethiopia, it is common to eat from the same dish in the middle of the table with a group of people. It is also a common custom to feed others within a group or own hands—a tradition referred to as "gursha".[363] Traditional Ethiopian cuisine employs no pork, as it is forbidden in Ethiopian Orthodox Christian and Islamic faiths; Ethiopian Orthodox Christians also fast from meat on Wednesdays, Fridays, and leading up to Easter and Christmas.[364]
Chechebsa, Marqa, Chukko, Michirra and Dhanga are the most popular dishes from the Oromo. Kitfo, which originated among the Gurage, is one of the country's most popular delicacies. In addition, Doro Wot (ዶሮ ወጥ in Amharic) and Tsebehi Derho (ጽብሒ ድርሆ in Tigrinya), are other popular dishes, originating from northwestern Ethiopia.[citation needed] Tihlo (ጥሕሎ)—which is a type of dumpling—is prepared from roasted barley flour and originated in the Tigray Region. Tihlo is now very popular in Amhara and spreading further south.[365]
Sport
The main sports in Ethiopia are track and field (particularly long distance running) and football. Ethiopian athletes have won many Olympic gold medals in track and field, most of them in long distance running.[366] Abebe Bikila became the first athlete from a Sub-Saharan country to win an Olympic gold medal when he won the Marathon at the 1960 Rome Olympic Games in a world record time of 2:15:16.[367][368]
The Ethiopia national football team was one of four founding members of the Confederation of African Football and won the Africa Cup of Nations in 1962.[369] Ethiopia has Sub-Saharan Africa's longest basketball tradition as it established a national basketball team in 1949.
See also
Notes
- ^ Romanized: Ye'ītiyop'iya Fēdēralawī Dēmokirasīyawī Rīpebilīki
- ^ Romanized: Nayəʾitəyop̣əya Federalawi Demokərasiyawi Ripsäbəlikə
- ^
- ^ The inscriptions in Ancient Greek read "ΑΧΩΜΙΤΩ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King of Axum") and "ΕΝΔΥΒΙΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΥΣ" ("King Endubis"); Greek was the lingua franca by that time, so its use in coins simplified foreign trade.
- ^
- Pro-federal government troops
- Ethiopian federal government and regional allies
- Anti-federal government rebels
- Fano (Amhara militia)
- Pro-federal government troops
References
Citations
- ^ "Ethiopia to Add 4 more Official Languages to Foster Unity". Ventures Africa. 4 March 2020. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- ^ "Ethiopia is adding four more official languages to Amharic as political instability mounts". Nazret. Archived from the original on 17 August 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- ^ a b Shaban A. "One to five: Ethiopia gets four new federal working languages". Africa News. Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2020.
- ^ "Ethiopian Constitution". www.africa.upenn.edu.
- ^ "Table 2.2 Percentage distribution of major ethnic groups: 2007" (PDF). Summary and Statistical Report of the 2007 Population and Housing Census Results. Population Census Commission. p. 16. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g "Country Level". 2007 Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia. CSA. 13 July 2010. Archived from the original on 8 February 2019. Retrieved 18 January 2013.
- ^ "Ethiopia- The World Factbook". www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Retrieved 19 July 2021.
- ^ "Zenawism as ethnic-federalism" (PDF).
- ^ "Population Size by Sex, Area and Density by Region, Zone and Wereda: July 2024" (PDF). www.statsethiopia.gov.et. Ethiopian Statistical Service (ESS). Retrieved 7 July 2024.
- ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Ethiopia)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 16 April 2024. Retrieved 17 April 2024.
- ^ "Gini Index coefficient". CIA World Factbook. Retrieved 16 July 2021.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
- ^ "Ethiopia". The World Factbook. 8 October 2024. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
- ^ "Ethiopia Population (2024)". Worldometer. Retrieved 3 October 2024.
- ^ "Population Projections for Ethiopia 2007–2037". www.csa.gov.et. Archived from the original on 3 August 2020. Retrieved 25 September 2020.
- ^ "Ethiopia". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 24 September 2022. (Archived 2022 edition.)
- ^ a b c d "Ethiopia". The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 5 April 2021.
- ^ Kessler DF (2012). The Falashas: a Short History of the Ethiopian Jews. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-283-70872-2. OCLC 819506475.
- ^ Hopkin M (16 February 2005). "Ethiopia is top choice for cradle of Homo sapiens". Nature. doi:10.1038/news050214-10. ISSN 0028-0836.
- ^ Li J, Absher D, Tang H, Southwick A, Casto A, Ramachandran S, Cann H, Barsh G, Feldman M, Cavalli-Sforza L, Myers R (2008). "Worldwide Human Relationships Inferred from Genome-Wide Patterns of Variation". Science. 319 (5866): 1100–04. Bibcode:2008Sci...319.1100L. doi:10.1126/science.1153717. PMID 18292342. S2CID 53541133.
- ^ "Humans Moved From Africa Across Globe, DNA Study Says". Bloomberg News. 21 February 2008. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ Kaplan K (21 February 2008). "Around the world from Addis Ababa". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 3 June 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ Blench R (2006). Archaeology, Language, and the African Past. AltaMira Press. pp. 150–163. ISBN 978-0-7591-0466-2.
- ^ Moore DH (1936). "Christianity in Ethiopia". Church History. 5 (3): 271–284. doi:10.2307/3160789. ISSN 0009-6407. JSTOR 3160789. S2CID 162029676.
- ^ Abbink J (1998). "An Historical-Anthropological Approach to Islam in Ethiopia: Issues of Identity and Politics". Journal of African Cultural Studies. 11 (2): 109–124. doi:10.1080/13696819808717830. hdl:1887/9486. ISSN 1369-6815. JSTOR 1771876.
- ^ "Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia" (PDF). 12 April 2022.
- ^ BBC Staff (3 November 2020). "Ethiopia attack: Dozens 'rounded up and killed' in Oromia state". BBC. Retrieved 25 May 2021.
- ^ "Egypt, Iran, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Ethiopia formally join BRICS". Daily News Egypt. 1 January 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
- ^ "5 reasons why Ethiopia could be the next global economy to watch". World Economic Forum. 6 September 2019. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
- ^ Africa S (29 August 2020). "Ethiopia Can Be Africa's Next Superpower". SomTribune. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
- ^ "Overview". World Bank. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
- ^ O'Neill A (4 July 2024). "Ethiopia: Share of economic sectors in the gross domestic product (GDP) from 2012 to 2022". Statista.
- ^ "Overview". World Bank. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
- ^ "Ethiopia Poverty Assessment". World Bank. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
- ^ "Major problems facing Ethiopia today". Africaw.
- ^ Bekerie A (2004). "Ethiopica: Some Historical Reflections on the Origin of the Word Ethiopia". International Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 1 (2): 110–121. ISSN 1543-4133. JSTOR 27828841.
- ^ a b Africa Geoscience Review, Volume 10. Rock View International. 2003. p. 366. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
- ^ Liddell HG, Scott R. "Aithiops". A Greek-English Lexicon. Perseus. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ For all references to Ethiopia in Herodotus, see: this list at the Perseus Project.
- ^ Homer, Odyssey 1.22–4.
- ^ a b Hatke G (2013). Aksum and Nubia: Warfare, Commerce, and Political Fictions in Ancient Northeast Africa. NYU Press. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-0-8147-6066-6.
- ^ Etymologicum Genuinum s.v. Αἰθιοπία; see also Aethiopia
- ^ Cp. Ezekiel 29:10
- ^ Acts 8:27
- ^ Schoff WH (1912). The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea: travel and trade in the Indian Ocean. Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 62. Retrieved 28 September 2016.
- ^ Ansari A (7 October 2009). "Oldest human skeleton offers new clues to evolution". CNN.com/technology. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
- ^ "Mother of man – 3.2 million years ago". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ Johanson DC, Wong K (2010). Lucy's Legacy: The Quest for Human Origins. Crown Publishing Group. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-0-307-39640-2.
- ^ "Institute of Human Origins: Lucy's Story". 15 June 2016. Retrieved 23 March 2017.
- ^ Mcdougall I, Brown H, Fleagle G (February 2005). "Stratigraphic placement and age of modern humans from Kibish, Ethiopia" (PDF). Nature. 433 (7027): 733–36. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..733M. doi:10.1038/nature03258. PMID 15716951. S2CID 1454595.
- ^ White T, Asfaw B, Degusta D, Gilbert H, Richards G, Suwa G, Clark Howell F (2003). "Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia". Nature. 423 (6941): 742–47. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..742W. doi:10.1038/nature01669. PMID 12802332. S2CID 4432091.
- ^ Callaway E (7 June 2017). "Oldest Homo sapiens fossil claim rewrites our species' history". Nature. doi:10.1038/nature.2017.22114. Retrieved 5 July 2017.
- ^ Hammond AS, Royer DF, Fleagle JG (July 2017). "The Omo-Kibish I pelvis". Journal of Human Evolution. 108: 199–219. Bibcode:2017JHumE.108..199H. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.04.004. ISSN 1095-8606. PMID 28552208.
- ^ Zarins J (1990). "Early Pastoral Nomadism and the Settlement of Lower Mesopotamia". Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 280 (280): 31–65. doi:10.2307/1357309. JSTOR 1357309. S2CID 163491760.
- ^ Diamond J, Bellwood P (2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions" (PDF). Science (Submitted manuscript). 300 (5619): 597–603. Bibcode:2003Sci...300..597D. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1013.4523. doi:10.1126/science.1078208. JSTOR 3834351. PMID 12714734. S2CID 13350469.
- ^ Blench R (2006). Archaeology, Language, and the African Past. Rowman Altamira. pp. 143–44. ISBN 978-0-7591-0466-2.
- ^ Güldemann T (2018). The Languages and Linguistics of Africa. De Gruyter Mouton. p. 311. ISBN 978-3-11-042606-9.
- ^ Campbell L (2021). Historical Linguistics, Fourth Edition. The MIT Press. pp. 399–400. ISBN 978-0-262-54218-0.
- ^ Zimmer C (8 August 2019). "In the Ethiopian Mountains, Ancient Humans Were Living the High Life". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ Katz B. "Archaeologists Uncover Evidence of an Ancient High-Altitude Human Dwelling". Smithsonian. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ Smith KN (9 August 2019). "The first people to live at high elevations snacked on giant mole rats". Ars Technica. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ Charles Q. Choi (9 August 2019). "Earliest Evidence of Human Mountaineers Found in Ethiopia". livescience.com. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ Dvorsky G (9 August 2019). "This Rock Shelter in Ethiopia May Be the Earliest Evidence of Humans Living in the Mountains". Gizmodo. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ "Earliest evidence of high-altitude living found in Ethiopia". UPI. Retrieved 16 August 2019.
- ^ Miehe G, Opgenoorth L, Zech W, Woldu Z, Vogelsang R, Veit H, Nemomissa S, Negash A, Nauss T (9 August 2019). "Middle Stone Age foragers resided in high elevations of the glaciated Bale Mountains, Ethiopia". Science. 365 (6453): 583–587. Bibcode:2019Sci...365..583O. doi:10.1126/science.aaw8942. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31395781. S2CID 199505803.
- ^ Sahle Y, Hutchings WK, Braun DR, Sealy JC, Morgan LE, Negash A, Atnafu B (2013). Petraglia MD (ed.). "Earliest Stone-Tipped Projectiles from the Ethiopian Rift Date to >279,000 Years Ago". PLOS ONE. 8 (11): e78092. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...878092S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078092. PMC 3827237. PMID 24236011.
- ^ Sahle Y, Brooks AS (2018). "Assessment of complex projectiles in the early Late Pleistocene at Aduma, Ethiopia". PLOS ONE. 14 (5): e0216716. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1416716S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216716. PMC 6508696. PMID 31071181.
- ^ a b c d Munro-Hay, p. 57
- ^ Tamrat, Taddesse (1972) Church and State in Ethiopia: 1270–1527. London: Oxford University Press, pp. 5–13.
- ^ Uhlig, Siegbert (ed.) (2005) Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, "Ge'ez". Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag, p. 732.
- ^ Phillipson DW (1998). Ancient Ethiopia. Aksum: Its Antecedents and Successors. The British Museum Press. pp. 7, 48–50. ISBN 978-0-7141-2763-7.
- ^ Munro-Hay, p. 13
- ^ a b "Solomonic Descent in Ethiopian History". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 20 December 2021.
- ^ Adejumobi, Saheed A. (2007). The history of Ethiopia. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press. p. 171. ISBN 978-0-313-32273-0.
- ^ The British Museum, The CarAf Centre. "The wealth of Africa – The kingdom of Aksum – Teachers' notes" (PDF). BritishMuseum.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 November 2019.
- ^ Karl W. Butzer, "Rise and Fall of Axum, Ethiopia: A Geo-Archaeological Interpretation", American Antiquity 46, (July 1981), p. 495
- ^ "Kingdom of Abyssinia". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
- ^ "A New History Changes the Balance of Power Between Ethiopia and Medieval Europe". 9 January 2022.
- ^ "Ethiopia The Zagwe Dynasty – Flags, Maps, Economy, History, Climate, Natural Resources, Current Issues, International Agreements, Population, Social Statistics, Political System". photius.com. Retrieved 16 December 2021.
- ^ Pankhurst R (1982). History of Ethiopian Towns. Steiner. ISBN 978-3-515-03204-9.
- ^ UNESCO General History of Africa. University of California Press. 3 November 1992. p. 283. ISBN 978-0-520-06698-4.
- ^ Abir M (28 October 2013). Ethiopia and the Red Sea: The Rise and Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty and Muslim European Rivalry in the Region. Routledge. pp. 22–70. ISBN 978-1-136-28090-0.
- ^ Connel & Killion 2011, p. 160.
- ^ Mohammed AK (2013). The Saho of Eritrea: Ethnic Identity and National Consciousness. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 170. ISBN 978-3-643-90332-7.
- ^ Fortunes of Africa: A 5,000 Year History of Wealth, Greed and Endeavour By Martin Meredith, In the Land of Prestor John, chapter 11
- ^ Hassen M (2017). The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia, 1300–1700. James Currey. ISBN 978-1-84701-161-9. OCLC 962017017.
- ^ Pankhurst 1997, p. 301.
- ^ "Ethiopia: The Trials of the Christian Kingdom and the Decline of Imperial Power ~a HREF="/et_00_00.html#et_01_02"". memory.loc.gov. Retrieved 31 December 2021.
- ^ "Oromo: Migration and Expansion: Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries".
- ^ Cohen L (2009). The Missionary Strategies of the Jesuits in Ethiopia (1555–1632). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-05892-6.
- ^ "Latin Letters of Jesuits -Wendy Laura Belcher". wendybelcher.com. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
- ^ a b Parfitt R (17 January 2019). The Process of International Legal Reproduction: Inequality, Historiography, Resistance. Cambridge University Press. pp. 225–. ISBN 978-1-316-51519-8.
- ^ Berndl K (2005). National Geographic Visual History of the World. National Geographic Society. p. 333. ISBN 978-0-7922-3695-5.
- ^ See Solomon Getamun, History of the City of Gondar (Africa World Press, 2005), pp.1–4
- ^ Getamun, City of Gondar, p. 5
- ^ Pankhurst, Economic History of Ethiopia (Addis Ababa: Haile Selassie University Press, 1968), pp. 297f
- ^ "Gondar Period". ethiopianhistory.com. Retrieved 5 June 2022.
- ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1967). The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles. London: Oxford University Press. pp. 139–143.
- ^ "Political Program of the Oromo People's Congress (OPC)". Gargaaraoromopc.org. 23 April 1996. Archived from the original on 7 March 2009. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ Middleton J (1 June 2015). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. pp. 39–. ISBN 978-1-317-45158-7.
- ^ Tibebu T (June 2018). "Ethiopia in the Nineteenth Century". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.279. ISBN 978-0-19-027773-4.
- ^ Keller EJ (2005). "Making and Remaking State and Nation in Ethiopia". In Laremont RR (ed.). Borders, Nationalism, and the African State (PDF). Lynne Rienner Publishers. pp. 89–92. ISBN 978-1-58826-340-7.[dead link]
- ^ The Egyptians in Abyssinia Archived 26 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Vislardica.com. Retrieved on 3 March 2012.
- ^ Caulk R (1971). "The Occupation of Harar: January 1887". Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 9 (2): 1–20. JSTOR 41967469.
- ^ Lipschutz M (1986). Dictionary of African historical biography. Rasmussen, R. Kent (2nd ed., expanded and updated ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-520-06611-3. OCLC 14069361.
- ^ Young J (1998). "Regionalism and democracy in Ethiopia". Third World Quarterly. 19 (2): 191–204. doi:10.1080/01436599814415. JSTOR 3993156.
- ^ a b International Crisis Group, "Ethnic Federalism and its Discontents". Issue 153 of ICG Africa report (4 September 2009) p. 2; Italy lost over 4,600 nationals in this battle.
- ^ Keefer, Edward C. (1973). "Great Britain and Ethiopia 1897–1910: Competition for Empire". International Journal of African Studies. 6 (3): 468–74. doi:10.2307/216612. JSTOR 216612.
- ^ Negash, Tekeste. Eritrea and Ethiopia : The Federal Experience. Uppsala, Sweden: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet (2005) ISBN 1-56000-992-6 pp. 13–14
- ^ "Famine Hunger stalks Ethiopia once again – and aid groups fear the worst". Time. 21 December 1987.
- ^ Pankhurst R (1966). "The Great Ethiopian Famine of 1888–1892: A New Assessment". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 21 (2): 95–124. doi:10.1093/jhmas/XXI.2.95. PMID 5326887.
- ^ Broich T (2017). "U.S. and Soviet Foreign Aid during the Cold War – A Case Study of Ethiopia". The United Nations University – Maastricht Economic and Social Research Institute on Innovation and Technology (UNU-MERIT).
- ^ Asnake Kefale, Tomasz Kamusella and Christopher Van der Beken. 2021. Eurasian Empires as Blueprints for Ethiopia: From Ethnolinguistic Nation-State to Multiethnic Federation. London: Routledge, pp 23–34.
- ^ Clapham, Christopher (2005) "Ḫaylä Śəllase" in Siegbert von Uhlig, ed., Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: D-Ha. Wiesbaden:Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. 1062–63.
- ^ Pankhurst R (24 September 2001). The Ethiopians: A History (2nd ed.). Blackwell. p. 256. ISBN 0631224939.
- ^ Tibebu T (1995). The Making of Modern Ethiopia: 1896-1974. RedSeaPr. p. 145. ISBN 1569020019.
- ^ Clapham, "Ḫaylä Śəllase", Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, p. 1063.
- ^ "(1963) Haile Selassie, "Towards African Unity"". BlackPast.org. 7 August 2009.
- ^ Valdes Vivo, p. 115.
- ^ Valdes Vivo, p. 21.
- ^ "REMOVAL IS QUIET". The New York Times. Reuters. 13 September 1974. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
- ^ "Ethiopia Executes 60 Former Officials, Including 2 Premiers and Military Chief". The New York Times. Reuters. 24 November 1974. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
- ^ "Ethiopia's Military Government Abolishes Monarchy and Titles". The New York Times. 22 March 1975. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
- ^ ʼAndārgāčaw Ṭerunah (1993). The Ethiopian revolution, 1974–1987: a transformation from an aristocratic to a totalitarian autocracy. Thomas Leiper Kane Collection. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-43082-8. OCLC 25316141.
- ^ Kaufman MT (15 November 1977). "Ethiopian Official Is Believed to Have Been Executed". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 17 June 2021.
- ^ Dagne HG (2006). The commitment of the German Democratic Republic in Ethiopia: a study based on Ethiopian sources. London: Global Lit. ISBN 978-3-8258-9535-8.
- ^ "The Mengistu Regime and Its Impact". Library of Congress.
- ^ Oberdorfer D (March 1978). "The Superpowers and the Ogaden War". The Washington Post.
- ^ "US admits helping Mengistu escape". BBC. 22 December 1999. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ The Black Book of Communism, pp. 687–95
- ^ Ottaway DB (21 March 1979). "Addis Ababa Emerges From a Long, Bloody War". The Washington Post. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ Katz DR (21 September 1978). "Ethiopia After the Revolution: Vultures in the Land of Sheba". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on 26 February 2018. Retrieved 13 December 2017.
- ^ Asnake Kefale, Tomasz Kamusella and Christopher Van der Beken. 2021. Eurasian Empires as Blueprints for Ethiopia: From Ethnolinguistic Nation-State to Multiethnic Federation. London: Routledge, pp 35–43
- ^ Stapleton TJ (2017). A History of Genocide in Africa. ABC-CLIO. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-4408-3052-5.
- ^ "Foreign Policy". Library of Congress – American Memory: Remaining Collections.
- ^ Crowell Anderson-Jaquest T (May 2002). "Restructuring the Soviet–Ethiopian Relationship: A Csse Study in Asymmetric Exchange" (PDF). London School of Economics and Political Science.
- ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Mengistu Haile Mariam Interview (1990), 13 June 2020, retrieved 17 June 2021
- ^ Tessema S (November 2017). "ADDIS ABABA". Anadolu Agency.
- ^ "Why a photo of Mengistu has proved so controversial". BBC News. August 2018.
- ^ Lyons 1996, pp. 121–23.
- ^ a b "Article 5" (PDF). Ethiopian Constitution. WIPO. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
- ^ "Eritrea Marks Independence After Years Under Ethiopia". The New York Times. Associated Press. 25 May 1993. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
- ^ "Will arms ban slow war?". BBC News. 18 May 2000. Archived from the original on 12 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
- ^ "War 'devastated' Ethiopian economy". BBC News. 7 August 2001. Archived from the original on 4 July 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
- ^ a b "Ethiopia and Eritrea declare end of war". BBC News. 9 July 2018.
- ^ "At least 23 die in weekend of Ethiopia ethnic violence". The Daily Star. 17 September 2018. Archived from the original on 2 October 2018. Retrieved 30 September 2018.
- ^ Ahmed H, Goldstein J (24 September 2018). "Thousands Are Arrested in Ethiopia After Ethnic Violence". The New York Times. Retrieved 27 April 2019.
- ^ "Ethnic violence displaces hundreds of thousands of Ethiopians". irinnews.com. 8 November 2017.
- ^ "12 killed in latest attack in western Ethiopia". News24. Retrieved 26 December 2020.
- ^ Fano Will Not Lay Down Arms If Demands Are Not Met: Chairman, retrieved 28 March 2020
- ^ "Ethiopian parliament allows PM Abiy to stay in office beyond term". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- ^ "Ethiopia's Tigray region defies PM Abiy with 'illegal' election". France 24. 9 September 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- ^ "Ethiopia's Tigray region holds vote, defying Abiy's federal gov't". www.aljazeera.com. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
- ^ "Ethiopia Tigray crisis: Rockets hit outskirts of Eritrea capital". BBC News. 15 November 2020.
- ^ "Ethiopia Tigray crisis: Rights commission to investigate 'mass killings'". BBC News. 14 November 2020.
- ^ "Ethiopia: Tigray leader confirms bombing Eritrean capital". Al-Jazeera. 15 November 2020.
- ^ "Tigray war has seen up to half a million dead from violence and starvation, say researchers". The Globe and Mail. 15 March 2022.
- ^ "The World's Deadliest War Isn't in Ukraine, But in Ethiopia". The Washington Post. 23 March 2022.
- ^ Chothia F, Bekit T (19 October 2022). "Ethiopia civil war: Hyenas scavenge on corpses as Tigray forces retreat". BBC News. Archived from the original on 22 October 2022.
- ^ Winning A, Cocks T (2 November 2022). "Parties in Ethiopia conflict agree to cease hostilities". Reuters.
- ^ "Amhara conflict: Ethiopians massacred in their homes by government troops". 13 February 2024. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
- ^ Account (16 February 2024). "Statement on the Indiscriminate Massacre of the Residents of Merawi in Ethiopia". Borkena Ethiopian News. Retrieved 18 May 2024.
- ^ "CIA World Factbook – Rank Order – Area". Archived from the original on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
- ^ "UNESCO World Heritage Centre – World Heritage List". UNESCO World Heritage Centre.
- ^ "Does It Snow In Ethiopia [Winter Travel]". 15 January 2023.
- ^ "While Egypt Struggles, Ethiopia Builds over the Blue Nile: Controversies and the Way Forward". Brookings.edu.
- ^ Gezie M (1 January 2019). Moral MT (ed.). "Farmer's response to climate change and variability in Ethiopia: A review". Cogent Food & Agriculture. 5 (1): 1613770. Bibcode:2019CogFA...513770G. doi:10.1080/23311932.2019.1613770. S2CID 155380174.
- ^ "Ethiopia, Climate Change and Migration: A little more knowledge and a more nuanced perspective could greatly benefit thinking on policy – Ethiopia". ReliefWeb. 6 December 2019. Retrieved 28 November 2020.
- ^ Dahir AL (5 March 2019). "Ethiopia is launching a global crowdfunding campaign to give its capital a green facelift". Quartz Africa. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
- ^ "Ethiopia PM hosts 'most expensive dinner'". 20 May 2019. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
- ^ AfricaNews (14 May 2019). "Ethiopia PM raises over $25m for project to beautify Addis Ababa". Africanews. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
- ^ Addisstandard (25 April 2019). "News: China's reprieve on interest-free loan only". Addis Standard. Retrieved 23 May 2019.
- ^ Lepage D. "Bird Checklists of the World". Avibase. Retrieved 6 October 2013.
- ^ Bicyclus, Site of Markku Savela
- ^ Bakerova, Katarina et al. (1991) Wildlife Parks Animals Africa. Retrieved 24 May 2008, from the African Cultural Center Archived 5 February 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Encyclopedia of Nations. Ethiopia Environment.
- ^ Kurpis, Lauren (2002). How to Help Endangered Species Archived 4 March 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Endangeredspecie.com
- ^ United Nations Statistics Division, Millennium Development Goals indicators: Carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), thousand tonnes of CO2 (collected by CDIAC) Human-produced, direct emissions of carbon dioxide only. Excludes other greenhouse gases; land use, land-use change, and forestry (LULUCF); and natural background flows of CO2 (See also: Carbon cycle)
- ^ a b Massicot, Paul (2005). Animal Info-Ethiopia.
- ^ Khoury CK, Achicanoy HA, Bjorkman AD, Navarro-Racines C, Guarino L, Flores-Palacios X, Engels JM, Wiersema JH, Dempewolf H (15 June 2016). "Origins of food crops connect countries worldwide". Proc. R. Soc. B. 283 (1832): 20160792. doi:10.1098/rspb.2016.0792. PMC 4920324.
- ^ Mongabay.com Ethiopia statistics. (n.d). Retrieved 18 November 2006, from Rainforests.mongabay.com
- ^ Grantham HS, Duncan A, Evans TD, Jones KR, Beyer HL, Schuster R, Walston J, Ray JC, Robinson JG, Callow M, Clements T, Costa HM, DeGemmis A, Elsen PR, Ervin J, Franco P, Goldman E, Goetz S, Hansen A, Hofsvang E, Jantz P, Jupiter S, Kang A, Langhammer P, Laurance WF, Lieberman S, Linkie M, Malhi Y, Maxwell S, Mendez M, Mittermeier R, Murray NJ, Possingham H, Radachowsky J, Saatchi S, Samper C, Silverman J, Shapiro A, Strassburg B, Stevens T, Stokes E, Taylor R, Tear T, Tizard R, Venter O, Visconti P, Wang S, Watson JE (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
- ^ "Ethiopia: Environmental Profile". Mongabay. 4 February 2006. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
- ^ Iyyer C (2009). Land Management: Challenges & Strategies. Global India Publications. p. 16. ISBN 978-93-80228-48-8.
- ^ Parry, J (2003). Tree choppers become tree planters. Appropriate Technology, 30(4), 38–39. Retrieved 22 November 2006, from ABI/INFORM Global database. (Document ID: 538367341).
- ^ See Federal High Court Establishment Proclamation No.322/2003. Federal High Courts have been placed in the following states: Afar, Benshngul/Gumuz, Gambela, Somali, and SNNPR.
- ^ Federal Courts Proclamation 25/1996, as amended by Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 138/1998, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 254/2001, Federal Courts (Amendment) Proclamation 321/2003, and Federal Courts Proclamation (Reamendment) Proclamation 454/2005 (Federal Courts Proclamation), Article 24(3).
- ^ Federal Courts Proclamation 25/1996, Article 3.
- ^ "Constitution of Ethiopia – 8 December 1994". Archived from the original on 9 May 2008.
- ^ a b Ethiopia – Country Governance Profile EN.pdf. OSGE and OREB. March 2009. p. 14.
- ^ "Ethiopia | Country report | Freedom in the World | 2015". freedomhouse.org. 21 January 2015. Archived from the original on 18 January 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
- ^ Lyons 1996, p. 142.
- ^ "President expelled from ruling party". IRIN. 25 June 2001. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- ^ "Map of Freedom 2007". Freedom House. 2007. Archived from the original on 9 September 2013. Retrieved 25 December 2007.
- ^ "Ethiopian Prime Minister Meles has died: state television". Reuters. 21 August 2012.
- ^ Lough R (22 August 2012). "Ethiopia acting PM to remain at helm until 2015". Reuters.
- ^ Malone B (27 May 2015). "Profile: Ethiopia's 'placeholder' PM quietly holds on". aljazeera.com. Al Jazeera English. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
- ^ Maasho A (8 August 2016). "At least 33 protesters killed in Ethiopia's Oromiya region: opposition". Reuters. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 8 August 2016.
- ^ "Ethiopia declares state of emergency". BBC News. 16 February 2018.
- ^ AfricaNews. "Ethiopia declares 6 months state of emergency over Oromia protests | Africanews". Africanews. Retrieved 7 November 2017.
- ^ "Ethiopian Prime Minister wins the 2019 Nobel Peace Prize". CNN News. 16 October 2019.
- ^ The Economist Intelligence Unit's Index of Democracy 2010. (PDF). Retrieved on 3 March 2012.
- ^ The Economist Intelligence Unit's Index of Democracy 2010. (PDF). p.17. Retrieved on 3 March 2012.
- ^ Ottaway M (1995). "The Ethiopian Transition: Democratization or New Authoritarianism?". Northeast African Studies. 2 (3): 67–84. doi:10.1353/nas.1995.0028. ISSN 0740-9133. JSTOR 41931114.
- ^ "Ethiopia: Country Profile". Freedom House. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
- ^ "Failure to Stand for Democracy in Ethiopia Has Weakened Democracy Worldwide". The Institute for Peace and Diplomacy - l’Institut pour la paix et la diplomatie. 3 November 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
- ^ "Ethiopia: Freedom in the World 2021 Country Report". Freedom House. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
- ^ Velasco G (1 April 2022). "The Ethiopia of Abiy Ahmed and the Pending Transition". IDEES. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
- ^ Gedamu Y (16 June 2020). "Abiy put Ethiopia on the road to democracy: but major obstacles still stand in the way". The Conversation. Retrieved 9 April 2024.
- ^ Mulatu Wubneh (2017). "Ethnic Identity Politics and the Restructuring of Administrative Units in Ethiopia". International Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 11 (1 & 2): 105–138. JSTOR 26586251.
- ^ "Ethiopia Political Map and Regions | Mappr". www.mappr.co. 14 January 2019.
- ^ Vértesy L, Lemango T (2022). "Comparison of local governments in Hungary and Ethiopia". De Iurisprudentia et Iure Publico. XIII (1–2): 62–75. ISSN 1789-0446 – via ResearchGate.
- ^ "Land of Punt". ethiopianhistory.com. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
- ^ The political history of the Ethiopian community, and their struggle for ownership of this small monastery, is retold in Chris Proutky, Empress Taytu and Menelik II (Trenton: The Red Sea Press, 1986), pp. 247–256
- ^ Although Bahru Zewde, A History of Modern Ethiopia, second edition (Oxford: James Currey, 2001), believes that the Suez Canal brought strategic value to the Red Sea region (p. 73), Sven Rubenson, The Survival of Ethiopian Independence (Hollywood: Tsehai,1991) argues that only with the Mahdi War did the United Kingdom interest themselves once again in Ethiopia (pp. 283ff).
- ^ "Ethiopia – Agoa.info – African Growth and Opportunity Act". agoa.info. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
- ^ Gregory W. "Obama Becomes First Sitting U.S. President To Visit Ethiopia". National Public Radio. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
- ^ Onyulo T (26 July 2015). "Obama visit highlights Ethiopia's role in fighting Islamist terrorists". USA Today.
- ^ "Decision on the Report of the Fifth Ordinary Session of the Specialized Technical Committee on Defence, Security and Safety Doc. EX.CL/698(XX)" (PDF). African Union. Retrieved 14 August 2024.
- ^ Walsh D (9 February 2020). "For Thousands of Years, Egypt Controlled the Nile. A New Dam Threatens That". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 10 February 2020.
- ^ "An Egyptian cyber attack on Ethiopia by hackers is the latest strike over the Grand Dam". Quartz. 27 June 2020.
- ^ "Row over Africa's largest dam in danger of escalating, warn scientists". Nature. 15 July 2020.
- ^ "Who Owns the Nile? Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia's History-Changing Dam". Origins. 15 March 2013. Retrieved 29 January 2022.
- ^ "Are Egypt and Ethiopia heading for a water war?". The Week. 8 July 2020.
- ^ "The United Nations in Ethiopia | United Nations in Ethiopia". ethiopia.un.org. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
- ^ Rothchild D (1994). The Rising Tide of Cultural Pluralism: The Nation-State at Bay?. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 139.
- ^ "Ethiopian Treasures - Emperor Yohannes IV, Battle of Metema - Ethiopia". www.ethiopiantreasures.co.uk.
- ^ "Ethiopia's military spending in 2022 increased by 88% to $1 billion – research". Addis Standard. 24 April 2023.
- ^ Paravicini G (12 April 2024). "Somalia refuses to accept Ethiopian naval base in breakaway region". Reuters.
- ^ "National Intelligence and Security Services – Ethiopia". Action On Armed Violence (AOAV). 2 April 2016.
- ^ "Ethiopia, Republic Of Korea Agree To Jointly Combat Terrorism, Cross-Border Crimes". Fana Broadcasting Corporation. 31 May 2024.
- ^ "Proclamation No. 804/2013" (PDF).
- ^ USA I (August 2013). Ethiopia Business Law Handbook Volume 1 Strategic Information and Basic Laws. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-4387-6981-3.
- ^ "Ethiopian Federal Police" (PDF). FEDERAL NEGARIT GAZETA. 29 June 2022.
- ^ ""One Hundred Ways of Putting Pressure"". Human Rights Watch. 24 March 2010. Retrieved 27 July 2021.
- ^ "World Economic Outlook" (PDF). IMF. Retrieved 13 January 2013.
- ^ "Ethiopia: IMF Positive on Country's Growth Outlook". allAfrica. Retrieved 13 January 2013.
- ^ "With Continued Rapid Growth, Ethiopia is Poised to Become a Middle Income Country by 2025". Retrieved 24 June 2016.
- ^ "Economic Overview". World Bank. 23 September 2015. Retrieved 1 February 2016.
- ^ "Ethiopia to launch four more industry parks within two years". Reuters. 9 November 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
- ^ Sze M (12 August 2019). "Ethiopia to Open Banks for Ethiopian Investors in the Diaspora". W7 News. Retrieved 14 August 2019.
- ^ "Business Corruption in Ethiopia". Business Anti-Corruption Portal. Archived from the original on 6 April 2014. Retrieved 8 April 2014.
- ^ "Six million children threatened by Ethiopia drought: UN". Terradaily.com. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ Eastwood V, Elbagir N (31 May 2012). "Ethiopia powers on with controversial dam project". CNN. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
- ^ "Power generation begins at 1,870-MW Gibe III hydroelectric project in Ethiopia". www.hydroworld.com. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 24 June 2016.
- ^ Wilkin P, Demissew S, Willis K, Woldeyes F, Davis AP, Molla EL, Janssens S, Kallow S, Berhanu A (2019). "Enset in Ethiopia: a poorly characterized but resilient starch staple". Annals of Botany. 123 (5): 747–766. doi:10.1093/aob/mcy214. PMC 6526316. PMID 30715125.
- ^ "Get the gangsters out of the food chain". The Economist. 7 June 2007. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
- ^ a b "National Accounts Estimates of Main Aggregates". The United Nations Statistics Division. Retrieved 12 November 2013.
- ^ Tikuye E (21 January 2023). "Fixing Addis light rail may cost at least $60 million". The Reporter (Ethiopia). Retrieved 10 March 2024.
- ^ Mengesha S (15 June 2023). "Ethiopian Airlines flies high with 20% increase in earnings despite global challenges". The Reporter (Ethiopia). Retrieved 10 March 2024.
- ^ "Ethio Telecom forecasts 19% rise in revenue in 2023/24". Reuters. 28 July 2023. Retrieved 10 March 2024.
- ^ "Ethiopian Coffee Culture – Legend, History and Customs". The Spruce Eats. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ^ The Economist 22 May 2010, page 49
- ^ "Starbucks in Ethiopia coffee vow". BBC. 21 June 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2007.
- ^ Stylianou N. "Coffee under threat". BBC News.
- ^ Cook R (2 September 2015). "World Cattle Inventory: Ranking of countries (FAO) | Cattle Network". www.cattlenetwork.com. Farm Journal. Archived from the original on 31 January 2017. Retrieved 8 January 2017.
- ^ "Ethiopia's flower trade in full bloom". Mail & Guardian. 19 February 2006. Archived from the original on 18 April 2007. Retrieved 21 June 2007.
Floriculture has become a flourishing business in Ethiopia in the past five years, with the industry's exports earnings set to grow to $100-million by 2007, a five-fold increase on the $20-million earned in 2005. Ethiopian flower exports could generate an estimated $300-million within two to three years, according to the head of the government export-promotion department, Melaku Legesse.
- ^ a b c d Pavanello, Sara 2010. Working across borders – Harnessing the potential of cross-border activities to improve livelihood security in the Horn of Africa drylands Archived 12 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine. London: Overseas Development Institute
- ^ Averill V (31 May 2007). "Ethiopia's designs on leather trade". BBC. Retrieved 21 June 2007.
The label inside the luxuriously soft black leather handbag reads Taytu: Made In Ethiopia. But the embroidered print on the outside, the chunky bronze rings attached to the fashionably short straps and the oversized "it" bag status all scream designer chic.
- ^ "Largest hydro electric power plant goes smoothly". English.people.com.cn. 12 April 2006. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
- ^ "Hydroelectric Power Plant built". Addistribune.com. Archived from the original on 3 January 2010. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ "The "white oil" of Ethiopia". Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. Retrieved 2 February 2007.. ethiopianreporter.com
- ^ Independent Online (18 April 2006). "Ethiopia hopes to power neighbors with dams". Int.iol.co.za. Archived from the original on 12 June 2006. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ "Ethiopia–Djibouti electric railway line opens". railwaygazette.com. 5 October 2016. Archived from the original on 7 October 2016. Retrieved 5 October 2016.
- ^ "Project Summary". AKH Project owners. January 2017. Archived from the original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 13 August 2017.
- ^ "List of all airports in Ethiopia". airport-authority.com. Retrieved 25 March 2016.
- ^ "Aklilu Lemma". Right Livelihood. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
- ^ "Zeresenay Alemseged – National Geographic Society". www.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
- ^ "Science And Technology". MICE Ethiopia. Retrieved 23 December 2021.
- ^ "Timnit Gebru: The 100 Most Influential People of 2022". Time. 23 May 2022. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
- ^ "Ethiopian Traditional Medications and their Interactions with Conventional Drugs". EthnoMed. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
- ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship. Geneva. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ "Explore All Countries – Ethiopia". The World Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 30 August 2021.
landlocked – entire coastline along the Red Sea was lost with the de jure independence of Eritrea on 24 May 1993; Ethiopia is, therefore, the most populous landlocked country in the world
- ^ "Population, total | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
- ^ "Abyssinia: Ethiopian Protest". Time Europe. 9 August 1926. Archived from the original on 6 February 2004. Retrieved 5 June 2005.
- ^ "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 19 June 2008. Archived from the original on 2 May 2012.
- ^ Racin, L. (4 March 2008) "Future Shock: How Environmental Change and Human Impact Are Changing the Global Map". Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
- ^ a b Ofcansky, T and Berry, L. "Ethiopia: A Country Study". Edited by Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1991. Countrystudies.us
- ^ a b c d e f Shivley, K. "Addis Ababa, Ethiopia" Macalester.edu Archived 11 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 15 May 2008.
- ^ Belete A (1991). "Development of agriculture in Ethiopia since the 1975 land reform" (PDF). Agricultural Economics. 6 (2): 159–75. doi:10.1016/0169-5150(91)90022-D (inactive 3 December 2024).
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2024 (link) - ^ a b c d Worldbank.org. Retrieved 5 October 2008 [not specific enough to verify]
- ^ "Population Projection of Ethiopia for All Regions At Wereda Level from 2014 – 2017". Government of Ethiopia. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
- ^ Curtis S, Klaus I (2024). The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 135. doi:10.2307/jj.11589102. ISBN 9780300266900. JSTOR jj.11589102.
- ^ a b c d e f g Crawley, Mike. "Breaking the Cycle of Poverty in Ethiopia" Archived 25 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine. April 2003. International Development Research Centre. Retrieved on 24 May 2008
- ^ "Poverty in Ethiopia Down 33 Percent Since 2000". Retrieved 24 June 2016.
- ^ "Condominium housing in Ethiopia". Archived from the original on 4 January 2017.
- ^ "Glottolog 4.8 - Languages of Ethiopia". glottolog.org. Retrieved 30 August 2023.
- ^ a b "Languages of Ethiopia". Ethnologue. SIL International. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
- ^ Yigezu M (2012). Language Ideologies and Challenges of Multilingual Education in Ethiopia. African Books Collective. p. 143. ISBN 978-99944-55-47-8.
- ^ FDRE. "Federal Negarit Gazeta Establishment Proclamation" (PDF). Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 November 2019. Retrieved 27 May 2021.
- ^ Mpoche, Kizitus, Mbuh, Tennu, eds. (2006). Language, literature, and identity. Cuvillier. pp. 163–64. ISBN 978-3-86537-839-2.
- ^ Fattovich, Rodolfo (2003) "Akkälä Guzay" in von Uhlig, Siegbert, ed. Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: A-C. Weissbaden: Otto Harrassowitz KG, p.169.
- ^ Hayward R, Hassan M (2009). "The Oromo orthography of Shaykh Bakri Saṗalō". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 44 (3): 550. doi:10.1017/S0041977X00144209. JSTOR 616613. S2CID 162289324.
- ^ "Rock-Hewn Churches, Lalibela". United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved 10 November 2006.
- ^ a b Abegaz B (1 June 2005). "Ethiopia: A Model Nation of Minorities" (PDF). Retrieved 27 July 2017.
- ^ Pew Forum on Religious & Public life. 9 August 2012. Retrieved 29 October 2013
- ^ Davis LD (1990). The First Seven Ecumenical Councils (325–787): Their History and Theology (Theology and Life Series 21). Collegeville, MN: Michael Glazier/Liturgical Press. p. 342. ISBN 978-0-8146-5616-7.
- ^ "The History of Ethiopian Jews". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ Thomas P Ofcansky LB (2004). Ethiopia: A Country Study. Kessinger Publishing. pp. 130–41. ISBN 978-1-4191-1857-9.
- ^ (Kater, 2000).
- ^ (Dorman et al., 2009, p. 622).
- ^ "Ethiopia MDG Report (2014)". UNDP in Ethiopia. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
- ^ "WaterAid UK – Where we work – Ethiopia". www.wateraid.org. Retrieved 16 May 2015.
- ^ "Ethiopia – Health and Welfare". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
- ^ "Global distribution of health workers in WHO Member States" (PDF). The World Health Report 2006. World Health Organization. Retrieved 2 February 2008.
- ^ "National Mental Health Strategy of Ethiopia". Mental Health Innovation Network. 14 August 2014.
- ^ "Ethiopia". Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation. 9 September 2015.
- ^ Hanlon C, Eshetu T, Alemayehu D, Fekadu A, Semrau M, Thornicroft G, Kigozi F, Marais DL, Petersen I, Alem A (8 June 2017). "Health system governance to support scale up of mental health care in Ethiopia: a qualitative study". International Journal of Mental Health Systems. 11: 38. doi:10.1186/s13033-017-0144-4. PMC 5465569. PMID 28603550.
- ^ "Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank". Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels. Retrieved 17 December 2024.
- ^ Teferra D, Altbach PG (2003). African Higher Education: An International Reference Handbook. Indiana University Press. pp. 316–25. ISBN 978-0-253-34186-0.
- ^ "Education in Ethiopia". WENR. 15 November 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
- ^ "Ethiopian National Exam Result 2022–2023". NEAEA 2022. Retrieved 4 August 2022.
- ^ "List of Ethiopian Public Universities" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 September 2018.
- ^ According to the UN's UNESCO and other's a larger number of private higher education institutions are growing in numbers
- ^ Engel J. "Ethiopia's progress in education: A rapid and equitablension of access – Summary" (PDF). Development Progress. Overseas Development Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
- ^ IIEP-UNESCO (2017). "Search Result: Ethiopia's plans and policies". Planipolis.
- ^ UNESCO (2015). National EFA review, 2015 (PDF). UNESCO. p. 8.
- ^ "Literacy" Archived 24 November 2016 at the Wayback Machine in The World Factbook. cia.gov.
- ^ Nations U (January 2015). "National Human Development Report 2015 Ethiopia | Human Development Reports". hdr.undp.org. Retrieved 24 December 2015.
- ^ UIS. "Education". data.uis.unesco.org.
- ^ Lewis IM (27 August 1976). "The peoples and cultures of Ethiopia". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B. Biological Sciences. 194 (1114): 7–16. Bibcode:1976RSPSB.194....7L. doi:10.1098/rspb.1976.0061. ISSN 0080-4649. PMID 11482. S2CID 46723065.
- ^ "Festivals & Holidays". www.ethioembassy.org.uk. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
- ^ "UNESCO - Ethiopian epiphany". ich.unesco.org. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
- ^ Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha are traditional trans-national holidays celebrated across the Islam world. Meskel being celebrated in other places but Ethiopia primary giving a huge emphasis on such. [1]
- ^ Abdo M. "Legal Pluralism Vs. Human Rights Issues: Sharia Courts and Human Rights Concerns in the Light of the Federal /constitution of Ethiopia" (PDF).
- ^ Ramadan is a moveable holiday [1] [2] Good Friday and Easter are included [3] [4] of which all of whom are celebrated across the Ethiopian Christian and Muslim communities
- ^ "Holiday Calendar". U.S Embassy in Ethiopia.
- ^ "Ethiopian Festival". eVISA.
- ^ Irrecha celebrated by the Oromo ethnic group is a huge holiday attracting large portions of the population and is given government de-facto recognition as a holiday. [1][2]
- ^ The 20th century has resulted in Ethiopia connecting towards the world with students of art learning the styles of western art, most notably Afewerk Tekle a laureate and others during the end of Menelik's reign and other monarchs right after
- ^ Ethiopia has produced many reputable contemporary painters and muralists, most notable among whom is Laureate Afewerk Tekle
- ^ "The Use of DMT in Early Masonic Ritual". Reality Sandwich. 27 April 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- ^ Lalibela was mainly built as a 'new Jerusalem' for Ethiopian pilgrims set to go to Jerusalem nonetheless barred from by Muslim conquests [1] [2] [3]
- ^ "Aksumite architecture: Architecture of Ethiopia". RTF | Rethinking The Future. 19 February 2021. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- ^ "Architecture of Aksun and Lalibela". kolibri.teacherinabox.org.au. Archived from the original on 2 January 2022. Retrieved 2 January 2022.
- ^ Alòs-Moner AM. "Gondarine Art and Architecture (HaAh 523) – Course Syllabus".
- ^ Teweldebirhan S (21 April 2013). "Remembering Baalu Girma". Ezega. Retrieved 29 September 2024.
- ^ Ayele T (1 September 2023). "Haddis Alemayehu's Vision of the Old World: Literary Realism and the Tragedy of History in the Amharic Novel Fikir iske Mekabir". Cambridge University. 10 (3): 353–376. doi:10.1017/pli.2023.26.
- ^ a b c Nosnitsin D (2012). "Ethiopian Manuscripts and Ethiopian Manuscript Studies. A brief Overview and Evaluation". Gazette du livre médiéval. 58 (1): 1–16. doi:10.3406/galim.2012.1993.
- ^ Marilyn Eiseman Heldman, Frē Ṣeyon (1994). The Marian Icons of the Painter Frē Ṣeyon: A Study of Fifteenth-century Ethiopian Art, Patronage, and Spirituality. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. p. 75. ISBN 978-3-447-03540-8.
- ^ Smidt WG (2015). "Gorgoryos and Ludolf: The Ethiopian and German Fore-Fathers of Ethiopian Studies: An Ethiopian scholar's 1652 visit to Thuringia" (PDF). ITYOP̣IS: Northeast African Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2016.
- ^ Adera T (1995). "From Apologist to Critic: The Dilemma of Bealu Girma". Northeast African Studies. 2 (1): 135–144. doi:10.1353/nas.1995.0030. JSTOR 41931195.
- ^ Getachew F (2 March 2015). "Ethiopia: Haddis Alemayehu - the Unique Personality in Ethiopian Literature". The Ethiopian Herald.
- ^ a b c Aga MT. "20 Of The Best Poets And Poems of Ethiopia (Qene included) — allaboutETHIO". allaboutethio.com. Retrieved 18 December 2021.
- ^ Abdullahi MD (2001). Culture and Customs of Somalia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 170. ISBN 978-0-313-31333-2.
Somali music, a unique kind of music that might be mistaken at first for music from nearby countries such as Ethiopia, the Sudan, or even Arabia, can be recognized by its own tunes and styles.
- ^ Tekle A (1994). Eritrea and Ethiopia: from conflict to cooperation. The Red Sea Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-932415-97-4.
Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan have significant similarities emanating not only from culture, religion, traditions, history and aspirations ... They appreciate similar foods and spices, beverages and sweets, fabrics and tapestry, lyrics and music, and jewellery and fragrances.
- ^ "About St. Yared – St. Yared Ethiopian Cuisine & Coffeehaus – Indianapolis IN". www.styaredcuisine.com. Retrieved 25 December 2021.
- ^ Aga MT. "Music in Ethiopia — allaboutETHIO". allaboutethio.com. Retrieved 9 January 2022.
- ^ Page WF (2001). Encyclopedia of African history and culture: African kingdoms (500 to 1500), Volume 2. Facts on File. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-8160-4472-6.
- ^ Tamrat T (2008). "Ethiopian Calendar & Millennia Highlights". International Journal of Ethiopian Studies. 3 (2): 177–88. JSTOR 27828897. Archived from the original on 13 September 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2022.
- ^ "Ethiopia: The country where a year lasts 13 months". BBC News. 10 September 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
- ^ Doyle LR. "The Borana Calendar Reinterpreted". tusker.com. Archived from the original on 29 October 2008.
- ^ Jeffrey J (21 December 2017). "Ethiopia's New Addiction – And What It Says About Media Freedom". Inter Press Service News Agency. Retrieved 28 June 2021.
- ^ There are only a few newspapers with high circulation, these include the Reporter, Addis Fortune, the Capital and the state-owned Ethiopian Herald Although statistical data regarding Ethiopian newspapers are readily available their noteworthy presence in Ethiopia and such is attested for.
- ^ a b Gaffey C (1 June 2017). "Why has Ethiopia pulled its mobile internet access again?". Newsweek. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
- ^ "Ethiopia Internet Users". Internet Live Stats. 1 July 2016.
- ^ "What is behind Ethiopia's wave of protests?". BBC News. 22 August 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
- ^ "Ethiopia blocks social media sites over exam leak". Al Jazeera. 11 July 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
- ^ Sharkov D (12 July 2016). "Ethiopia has shut down social media and here's why". Newsweek. Retrieved 14 August 2017.
- ^ "Gumma Film Awards". Addis Standard. 5 July 2022.
- ^ "Addis International Film Festival | Human Rights Film Network". www.humanrightsfilmnetwork.org. Retrieved 5 July 2022.
- ^ "Ethiopian International Film Festival". ethiopianfilminitiative.org. Retrieved 5 July 2022.
- ^ "The Simpsons Episode Well-Received by Ethiopians On Social Media". Tadias Magazine. 1 December 2011.
- ^ Seleshe S, Jo C, Lee M (2014). "Meat Consumption Culture in Ethiopia". Korean Journal for Food Science of Animal Resources. 34 (1): 7–13. doi:10.5851/kosfa.2014.34.1.7. ISSN 2234-246X. PMC 4597829. PMID 26760739.
- ^ "Culture of the people of Tigrai". Tigrai Online. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
- ^ "Ethiopian Olympic Committee". International Olympic Committee. Retrieved 3 January 2013.
- ^ Bloor S (25 April 2012). "50 stunning Olympic moments: Abebe Bikila's 1960 marathon victory – in pictures". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
- ^ "Athletics – Abebe Bikila (ETH)". International Olympic Committee. 13 October 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
- ^ Mehrish A (31 October 2022). "History makers: Ethiopia's role in the creation of CAF, AFCON". FIFA. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
General sources
- Abir, Mordechai (1968). Ethiopia: The Era of the Princes; The Challenge of Islam and the Re-unification of the Christian Empire (1769–1855). London, England: Longmans.
- Beshah, Girma, Aregay, Merid Wolde (1964). The Question of the Union of the Churches in Luso-Ethiopian Relations (1500–1632). Lisbon: Junta de Investigações do Ultramar and Centro de Estudos Históricos Ultramarinos.
- Connel D, Killion T (2011). Historical Dictionary of Eritrea. The Scarecrow. ISBN 978-0-8108-5952-4.
- Lyons T (1996). "Closing the Transition: the May 1995 Elections in Ethiopia". The Journal of Modern African Studies. 34 (1): 121–42. doi:10.1017/S0022278X00055233. S2CID 155079488.
- Munro-Hay, Stuart (1991). Aksum: An African Civilization of Late Antiquity (PDF). Edinburgh: University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0106-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 January 2013. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- Pankhurst R (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 978-0-932415-19-6.
- Valdes Vivo, Raul (1977). Ethiopia's Revolution. New York, NY: International Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7178-0556-3.
Further reading
- Campbell G, Miers S, Miller J (2007). Women and Slavery: Africa, the Indian Ocean world, and the medieval north Atlantic. Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-1723-2.
- Cana FR, Gleichen AE (1911). . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 1 (11th ed.). pp. 82–95.
- Deguefé, Taffara (2006). Minutes of an Ethiopian Century, Shama Books, Addis Ababa, ISBN 99944-0-003-7.
- Henze PB (2004). Layers of Time: A History of Ethiopia. Shama Books. ISBN 978-1-931253-28-4.
- Hoskins, G. A. (1835), Travels in Ethiopia, above the second cataract of the Nile: exhibiting the state of that country, and its various inhabitants, under the dominion of Mohammed Ali.
- Hugues Fontaine, Un Train en Afrique. African Train, Centre Français des Études Éthiopiennes / Shama Books. Édition bilingue français / anglais. Traduction : Yves-Marie Stranger. Postface : Jean-Christophe Belliard. Avec des photographies de Matthieu Germain Lambert et Pierre Javelot. Addis Abeba, 2012, ISBN 978-99944-867-1-7. English and French. UN TRAIN EN AFRIQUE
- Keller E (1991). Revolutionary Ethiopia From Empire to People's Republic. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20646-6.
- Marcus HG (1975). The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia, 1844–1913. Oxford: Clarendon. Reprint, Trenton, NJ: Red Sea, 1995. ISBN 1-56902-009-4.
- Marcus HG (2002). A History of Ethiopia (updated ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-22479-7.
- Mauri, Arnaldo (2010). Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia, Acta Universitatis Danubius Œconomica, VI, n. 1/2010, pp. 5–16. Monetary Developments and Decolonization in Ethiopia and WP Monetary developments and decolonization in Ethiopia
- Mockler A (1984). Haile Selassie's War. New York: Random House. Reprint, New York: Olive Branch, 2003. ISBN 0-902669-53-2.
- Murphy, Dervla (1968). In Ethiopia with a Mule. London: Century, 1984, cop. 1968. N.B.: An account of the author's travels in Ethiopia. 280 p., ill. with a b&w map. ISBN 0-7126-3044-9
- Rubenson S (2003). The Survival of Ethiopian Independence (4th ed.). Hollywood, CA: Tsehai. ISBN 978-0-9723172-7-6.
- Selassie I H (1999). My Life and Ethiopia's Progress: The Autobiography of Emperor Haile Selassie I. Translated by Edward Ullendorff. Chicago: Frontline. ISBN 978-0-948390-40-1.
- Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2003). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 1: A–C. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
- Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2005). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 2: D–Ha. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
- Siegbert Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2007). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 3: He–N. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
- Siegbert Uhlig & Alessandro Bausi, et al. (eds.) (2010). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 4: O–X. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
- Alessandro Bausi & S. Uhlig, et al. (eds.) (2014). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica, Vol. 5: Y–Z and addenda, corrigenda, overview tables, maps and general index. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
- Zewde B (2001). A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991 (2nd ed.). Athens, OH: Ohio University Press. ISBN 978-0-8214-1440-8.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.- This article incorporates public domain material from The World Factbook. CIA.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Texts from Wikisource
Textbooks from Wikibooks
Travel information from Wikivoyage
- Ethiopia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- BBC Ethiopia Profile
- World Bank Ethiopia Summary Trade Statistics
- Key Development Forecasts for Ethiopia from International Futures.
- Ethiopia pages – U.S. Dept. of State (which includes current State Dept. press releases and reports on Ethiopia)
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Geographic | |
| Artists | |
| People | |
| Other | |
