Protectorate

For the 17th-century British protectorate, see The Protectorate.

Not to be confused with Protecting power.

A protectorate, in the context of international relations, is a state that is under protection by another state for defence against aggression and other violations of law. It is a dependent territory that enjoys autonomy over most of its internal affairs, while still recognizing the suzerainty of a more powerful sovereign state without being a possession. In exchange, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations depending on the terms of their arrangement. Usually protectorates are established de jure by a treaty. Under certain conditions—as with Egypt under British rule (1882–1914)—a state can also be labelled as a de facto protectorate or a veiled protectorate.

A protectorate is different from a colony as it has local rulers, is not directly possessed, and rarely experiences colonization by the suzerain state. A state that is under the protection of another state while retaining its "international personality" is called a "protected state", not a protectorate.

History

Protectorates are one of the oldest features of international relations, dating back to the Roman Empire. Civitates foederatae were cities that were subordinate to Rome for their foreign relations. In the Middle Ages, Andorra was a protectorate of France and Spain. Modern protectorate concepts were devised in the nineteenth century.

Typology

Foreign relations

In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the protector state, and transfers the management of all its more important international affairs to the latter. Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation, in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate.

Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations trust territories, whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a de facto administering power.

Protected state

See also: List of sovereign states without armed forces

A protected state has a form of protection where it continues to retain an "international personality" and enjoys an agreed amount of independence in conducting its foreign policy.

For political and pragmatic reasons, the protection relationship is not usually advertised, but described with euphemisms such as "an independent state with special treaty relations" with the protecting state. A protected state appears on world maps just as any other independent state.

International administration of a state can also be regarded as an internationalized form of protection, where the protector is an international organisation rather than a state.

Colonial protection

Multiple regions—such as the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria, the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, and similar—were subjects of colonial protection. Conditions of protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a de facto condition similar to a colony, but with the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent of indirect rule. Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which becomes a de facto state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces.

In fact, protectorates were often declared despite no agreement being duly entered into by the state supposedly being protected, or only agreed to by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, without being mindful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain a protectorate's status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885, allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as colony and protectorate for an amalgamation—convenient only for the colonizer or protector—of adjacent territories, over which it held (de facto) sway by protective or "raw" colonial power.

Amical protection

In amical protection—as of United States of the Ionian Islands by Britain—the terms are often very favourable for the protectorate. The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or dynastic, historical, or ethnocultural ties). Also, the protector's interest is in countering a rival or enemy power—such as preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance. This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations but may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have a similar use of them without the protector's strength.

Amical protection was frequently extended by the great powers to other Christian (generally European) states, and to states of no significant importance. After 1815, non-Christian states (such as the Chinese Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection of other, much weaker states.

In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of microstates. According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): "microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints".

For information on the colonisation of Africa prior to the 1880s, including Carthaginian and early European colonisation, see Colonisation of Africa. For the book by Thomas Pakenham, see The Scramble for Africa (book).

Major pre-colonial states in Africa (excluding East African states such as Ajuran, Adal, Buganda, Rwanda, Kilwa, and Imerina, and southern African ones: Mapungubwe, Rozvi, Maravi, Uukwanyama, and Mthwakazi)

Areas of Africa controlled by Western European colonial powers in 1913: Belgian (orange), British (pink), French (purple), German (blue), Italian (lime green), Portuguese (dark green), and Spanish (yellow) empires

Areas of Africa controlled by Western European colonial empires in 1913, shown with current national boundaries

  Belgium

  France

  Germany

  Italy

  Portugal

  Spain

  United Kingdom

  Independent

The Scramble for Africa was the conquest and colonisation of most of Africa by seven Western European powers driven by the Second Industrial Revolution during the era of "New Imperialism" (1833–1914): Belgium, France, Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, Portugal and Spain.

In 1870, 10% of the continent was formally under European control. By 1914, this figure had risen to almost 90%; the only states retaining sovereignty were Liberia, Ethiopia, Egba, Aussa, Senusiyya, Mbunda, the Dervish State, and the Ovambo kingdoms, most of which were later conquered.

The 1884 Berlin Conference regulated European colonisation and trade in Africa, and is seen as emblematic of the "scramble". In the last quarter of the 19th century, there were considerable political rivalries between the European empires, which provided the impetus for the colonisation. The later years of the 19th century saw a transition from "informal imperialism" – military influence and economic dominance – to direct rule.

With the decline of the European colonial empires in the wake of the two world wars, most African colonies gained independence during the Cold War, and decided to keep their colonial borders in the Organisation of African Unity conference of 1964 due to fears of civil wars and regional instability, placing emphasis on pan-Africanism.

Argentina's protectorates

• Liga Federal (1815–1820)
• Chile (1817–1818)
• Republic of Tucumán (1820–1821)
• Peru (1820–1822)
• Gobierno del Cerrito (1843–1851)
• Paraguay (1876)

Brazil's protectorates

• Republic of Acre (1899–1903)
• Paraguay (1869–1876)
• Uruguay (1828–1835)

British Empire's protectorates and protected states

Main article: British protectorate

Americas

• Mosquitia (1638–1860; over Central America's Miskito Indian nation)

Europe

• Malta Protectorate (1800–1813; de jure part of the Kingdom of Sicily but under British protection)
  • (Crown Colony of Malta proclaimed in 1813)
• Ionian islands (1815–1864; a Greek state and amical protectorate of Great Britain between 1815 and 1864)
• British Cyprus (1878–1914; put under British military administration (1914–22) then proclaimed a Crown Colony (1922–60))

South Asia

• Cis-Sutlej states (1809–1862)
• Kingdom of Nepal (1816–1923; protected state)
• Kingdom of Sikkim (1861–1947), (1947–1972)
• Maldive Islands (1776–1965, 1965–1968, 1968–1990)
• Various British Raj princely states (1845–1947)
• Bhutan (1906–1947 and 1948; protected state)

West and Central Asia

• British Residency of the Persian Gulf (1822–1971; headquarters based in Bushire, Persia)
  • Bahrain (1880–1971; protected state)
  • Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961; protected state)
  • Qatar, protected state (1916–1971)
  • Trucial States (1892–1971; precursor state of the modern UAE, protected states)
    • Abu Dhabi (1820–1971)
    • Ajman (1820–1971)
    • Dubai (1835–1971)
    • Fujairah (1952–1971)
    • Ras Al Khaimah (1820–1971)
    • Sharjah (1820–1971)
      • Kalba (1936–1951)
    • Umm al-Qaiwain (1820–1971)
  • Muscat and Oman (1892–1971; informal, protected state)
• Aden Protectorate (1872–1963; precursor state of South Yemen)
  • Eastern Protectorate States (mostly in Hadhramaut) (1963–1967; later the Protectorate of South Arabia)
    • Kathiri
    • Mahra
    • Qu'aiti
    • Upper Yafa (consisted of five Sheikhdoms: Al-Busi, Al-Dhubi, Hadrami, Maflahi, and Mawsata)
    • Hawra
    • Irqa
  • Western Protectorate States (1959 and 1962–1967; later the Federation of South Arabia, including Aden Colony)
    • Wahidi Sultanates (these included: Balhaf, Azzan, Bir Ali, and Habban)
    • Beihan
    • Dhala and Qutaibi
    • Fadhli
    • Lahej
    • Lower Yafa
    • Audhali
    • Haushabi
    • Upper Aulaqi Sheikhdom
    • Upper Aulaqi Sultanate
    • Lower Aulaqi
    • Alawi
    • Aqrabi
    • Dathina
    • Shaib
• Emirate of Afghanistan (1879–1919; protected state)
• Afghanistan (1919–1947, 1948, 1950, 1956)

Africa

1960 stamp of Bechuanaland Protectorate with the portraits of Queens Victoria and Elizabeth II

• British Somaliland (1884–1960)
• Bechuanaland Protectorate (1885–1966)
• Barotseland Protectorate (1889–1980)
• Nyasaland Protectorate (1893–1964)
  • British Central Africa Protectorate (1889–1907)
• Sultanate of Zanzibar (1890–1963)
• Sultanate of Wituland (1890–1923)
• Gambia Colony and Protectorate* (1894–1971)
• Uganda Protectorate (1894–1962)
• East Africa Protectorate (1895–1920)
• Sierra Leone Protectorate* (1896–1961)
• Nigeria* (1914–1963)
• Northern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)
• Swaziland (1903–1968)
• Southern Nigeria Protectorate (1900–1914)
• Northern Territories of the Gold Coast (British protectorate) (1901–1957)/(1957-1960)
• Sultanate of Egypt (1914–1922)
• Kenya Protectorate* (1920–1963'1964)
• Kingdom of Egypt (1922–1936)
• Northern Rhodesia (1924–1964'1965'1980)

*protectorates which existed alongside a colony of the same name

De facto

• Khediviate of Egypt (1882–1913)

Oceania

• Territory of Papua (1884–1888)
• Tokelau (1877–1916)
• Cook Islands (1888–1893)
• Gilbert and Ellice Islands (1892–1916)
• British Solomon Islands (1893–1978)
• Niue (1900–1901)
• Tonga (1900–1970)

Southeast Asia

• British North Borneo (1888–1946)
• Brunei (1888–1984)
• Raj of Sarawak (1888–1946)
• Federation of Malaya (1948–1957)
  • Federated Malay States (1895–1946)
    • Negeri Sembilan (1888–1895)
      • Sungai Ujong (1874–1888)
      • Jelebu (1886–1895)
    • Pahang (1888–1895)
    • Perak (1874–1895)
    • Selangor (1874–1895)
  • Unfederated Malay States (1904/09–1946)
    • Johor (1914–1946)
      • Johor Muar (1897–1909)
    • Kedah (1909–1946)
      • Kedah Kulim (1894–1909)
    • Kelantan (1909–1946)
    • Perlis (1909–1946)
    • Terengganu (1909–1946)

China's protectorates

Chinese Empire

• Chinese Empire (from Qin dynasty to Qing dynasty), (221 BC – 1911)
  • Main article: Chinese imperialism
    • Imperial Chinese Tributary System
    • Guangxi
    • Hainan (since the Han dynasty)
      • Nansha Islands
      • Xisha Islands
    • Manchuria (during the Tang, Liao, Jin, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties)
      • Manchuria (Northeast China)
      • Outer Manchuria
        • Kuye Island
    • Korea
      • Canghai Commandery(A commandery that self subjugated to Han dynasty from Dongye)
      • Four Commanderies of Han (Established after the fall of Gojoseon)
      • Daifang Commandery (Offshoot of the former four commanderies of Han that existed in the 3rd to 4th century)
      • Colonization attempts of the Tang dynasty after Unification of the three kingdoms of Korea (Gyerim Territory Area Command, Protectorate General to Pacify the East and Ungjin Commandery)
      • Dongnyeong Prefectures, Ssangseong Prefectures and Tamna prefectures (Yuan dynasty)
    • Inner Mongolia
    • Outer Mongolia (during for example the Tang and Qing dynasties)
      • Tannu Uriankhai
    • Taiwan (during the Qing dynasty)
    • Tibet (during the Yuan and Qing dynasties)
    • Yunnan
    • Vietnam (from the Han to Tang dynasties, and during the early Ming dynasty)
    • Xinjiang
    • Central Asia (during the Tang and Qing dynasties)
      • Protectorate General to Pacify the West

Further information: Protectorate (Duhu Fu)

• Han dynasty:
  • Protectorate of the Western Regions
• Tang dynasty:
  • Protectorate General to Pacify the West
  • Protectorate General to Pacify the North
  • Protectorate General to Pacify the East
• Yuan dynasty:
  • Goryeo (1270–1356)
• Qing dynasty:
  • Tibet

Dutch Empire's protectorates

Various sultanates in the Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia):

Sumatra

• Tarumon Kingdom (1830–1946)
• Langkat Sultanate (26 October 1869 – December 1945)
• Deli Sultanate (22 August 1862 – December 1945)
• Asahan Sultanate (27 September 1865 – December 1945)
• Bila (1864–1946)
• Tasik (Kota Pinang) (1865 – December 1945)
• Siak Sultanate (1 February 1858 – 1946)
• Sungai Taras (Kampong Raja) (1864–1916)
• Panei (1864–1946)
• Sultanate of Serdang (1865 – December 1945)
• Indragiri Sultanate (1838 – September 1945)
• Jambi Sultanate (1833–1899)
• Kuala (1886–1946)
• Pelalawan (1859 – November 1945)
• Siantar (1904–1946)
• Tanah Jawa (1904–1946)

Riau Archipelago

• Lingga-Riau (1819–1911)

Java

• Banten (1682–1811)
• Cirebon (1684–1819)
• Yogjakarta Sultanate (13 February 1755 – 1942)
• Mataram Sultanate (later Surakarta Sunanate) (26 February 1677 – 19 August 1945)
• Principality of Mangkunegara (24 February 1757 – 1946)
• Duchy of Pakualaman (22 June 1812 – 1942)
• Semarang (1682–1809)

Bali

• Klungkung (1843–1908)
• Badung (1843–1906)
• Bangli (1843–1908)
• Buleleng (1841–1872 and 1890–1893)
• Gianyar (1843–1908)
• Jembrana (1849–1882)
• Karang Asem (1843–1908)
• Tabanan (1843–1906)

Lombok

• Lombok (1843–1894)
• Sumbawa (1908–c. 1948)
• Bima (8 December 1669 – 1949)
• Dompu (1905–1942)

Flores and Solor

• Larantuka (1860–1904)
• Tanah Kuna Lima (1917–1924)
• Ndona (1917–1924)
• Sikka (1879–c. 1947)

Borneo

• Banjarmasin (1787–1860)
• Pontianak Sultanate (16 August 1819 – 1942)
• Sambas Sultanate (1819–1949)
• Kubu (4 June 1823 – 1949)
• Landak (1819–c. 1949)
• Mempawah Kingdom (1819–1942)
• Sanggau Kingdom (182?–1949)
• Sekadau (182?–c. 1949)
• Simpang (1822–c. 1949)
• Sintang (1822–1949)
• Sukadana (1828–c.1949)
• Kota Waringin Sultanate (1824–1949)
• Kutai Kertanegara Sultanate (8 August 1825 – 1949)
• Gunung Tabur (1844–c.1945)
• Bulungan Sultanate (1844–c.1949)
• Simbaliung (1844–c. 1949)
• Kubu (1823–1949)
• Tayan (1823–c. 1949)

Celebes

• Gowa Sultanate (1669–1906; 1936–1949)
• Bone Sultanate (1669–1905)
• Bolaang Mongonduw (1825–c. 1949)
• Laiwui (1858–c. 1949)
• Luwu (1861–c. 1949)
• Soppeng (1860–c. 1949)
• Butung (1824–c. 1949)
• Siau (1680–c. 1949)
• Banggai (1907–c. 1949)
• Tallo (1668–1780)
• Wajo (1860–c. 1949)
• Tabukan (1677–c. 1949)

Ajattappareng Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

• Malusetasi
• Rapang
• Swaito (union of Sawito and Alita, 1908)
• Sidenreng
• Supa

Mabbatupappeng Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

• Barru
• Soppengriaja (union of Balusu, Kiru, Kamiri, 1906)
• Tanette

Mandar Confederacy (1906–c. 1949)

• Balangnipa
• Binuang
• Cenrana
• Majene
• Mamuju
• Pambauang
• Tapalang

Massenrempulu Confederacy (1905–c. 1949)

• Allah
• Batulapa
• Bontobatu
• Enrekang
• Kasa
• Maiwa
• Malua

Moluccas

• Ternate Sultanate (12 October 1676 – 1949)
• Bacan Sultanate (1667–1949)
• Tidore (1657–c.1949)

West Timor and Alor

• Amanatun (1749–c. 1949)
• Amanuban (1749–c. 1949)
• Amarasi (1749–c. 1949)
• Amfoan (1683–c. 1949)
• Beboki (1756–c. 1949)
• Belu (1756–c.1949)
• Insana (1756–c.1949)
• Sonbai Besar (1756–1906)
• Sonbai Kecil (1659–1917)
• Roti (Korbafo before 1928) (c. 1750–c.1949)
• TaEbenu (1688–1917)

New Guinea

• Dutch New Guinea:
  • Kaimana Sultanate (1828-1949)

France's protectorates and protected states

France

• French Empire (1534–1980/present)
  Main article: List of French possessions and colonies
  • French colonization of the Americas:
    • France Antarctique (1555–1567)
    • New France (1534–1763) and Quebec
    • French Louisiana
    • French West Indies (1635–today)
      • Îles des Saintes (1648–present)
      • Marie-Galante (1635–present)
      • la Désirade (1635–present)
      • Guadeloupe (1635–present)
      • Martinique (1635–present)
    • French Guiana
    • Saint Pierre and Miquelon
  • Asia:
    • French India (1664–1962)
    • French Indochina and French Indochinese Union (1887–1954)
      • Laos (protectorate) (1893–1953)
      • Cambodia (protectorate) (1863–1953)
      • Vietnam
        • Cochinchina (Southern Vietnam) (1858–1949)
        • Annam (protectorate) (Central Vietnam) (1883–1949)
        • Tonkin (protectorate) (Northern Vietnam) (1884–1949)
    • China
      • The foreign concessions : French Concession of Shanghai (1849–1946), Tianjin (1860–1946) and Hankou (1898–1946)
      • The spheres of French influence officially recognized by China on the provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, and Guangdong
      • Shamian Island (1859–1949) (a fifth of the island)
      • French Guangzhouwan (1898–1945)
  • Possessions in the Middle East
    • Mandate for Syria and Lebanon (1920–1946)
  • French Africa:
    • French North Africa (1830–1934)
    • French Algeria
    • French Morocco (1912–1956)
    • French Tunisia (1886–1956)
    • French Somaliland (1883–1975)
    • French West Africa (1895–1958)
    • French Madagascar (1882–1958)
    • French Comoros (1866–1968)
    • French Equatorial Africa (1910–1958)
    • Isle de France (1715–1810)
    • Seychelles (1756–1810)
    • The Scattered Islands
    • Reunion (1710–present)
    • Mayotte (1841–present)
  • Oceania:
    • New Hebrides (1906–1980)
    • French Polynesia
    • New Caledonia
    • Wallis and Futuna
    • Clipperton Island

Africa

"Protection" was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state that was later part of French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained—as with the low-level authority figures in the French Cercles—with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.

• Benin traditional states
  • Independent of Danhome, under French protectorate, from 1889
  • Porto-Novo a French protectorate, 23 February 1863 – 2 January 1865. Cotonou a French Protectorate, 19 May 1868. Porto-Novo French protectorate, 14 April 1882.
• Central African Republic traditional states:
  • French protectorate over Dar al-Kuti (1912 Sultanate suppressed by the French), 12 December 1897
  • French protectorate over the Sultanate of Bangassou, 1894
• Burkina Faso was from 20 February 1895 a French protectorate named Upper Volta (Haute-Volta)
• Chad: Baghirmi state 20 September 1897 a French protectorate
• Côte d'Ivoire: 10 January 1889 French protectorate of Ivory Coast
• Guinea: 5 August 1849 French protectorate over coastal region; (Riviéres du Sud).
• Niger, Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder), 30 July 1899 under French protectorate over the native rulers, titled Sarkin Damagaram or Sultan
• Senegal: 4 February 1850 First of several French protectorate treaties with local rulers
• Comoros: 21 April 1886 French protectorate (Anjouan) until 25 July 1912 when annexed.
• Present Djibouti was originally, from 24 June 1884, the Territory of Obock and Protectorate of Tadjoura (Territoires Français d'Obock, Tadjoura, Dankils et Somalis), a French protectorate recognized by Britain on 9 February 1888, renamed on 20 May 1896 as French Somaliland (Côte Française des Somalis).
• Mauritania: 12 May 1903 French protectorate; within Mauritania several traditional states:
  • Adrar emirate from 9 January 1909 French protectorate (before Spanish)
  • The Taganit confederation's emirate (founded by Idaw `Ish dynasty), from 1905 under French protectorate.
  • Brakna confederation's emirate
  • Emirate of Trarza: 15 December 1902 placed under French protectorate status.
• Morocco – most of the sultanate was under French protectorate (30 March 1912 – 7 April 1956) although, in theory, it remained a sovereign state under the Treaty of Fez; this fact was confirmed by the International Court of Justice in 1952.
  • The northern part of Morocco was under Spanish protectorate in the same period.
• Traditional Madagascar States
  • Kingdom of Imerina under French protectorate, 6 August 1896. French Madagascar colony, 28 February 1897.
• Tunisia (12 May 1881 – 20 March 1956): became a French protectorate by treaty

Americas

• Second Mexican Empire (1863–1867), established by Emperor Napoleon III during the Second French intervention in Mexico and ruled by the Austrian-born, French puppet monarch Maximilian I

Asia

1 Sapèque – Protectorate of Tonkin (1905)

• French Indochina until 1953/54:
  • Annam and Tonkin 6 June 1884
  • Cambodia 11 August 1863
  • Laos 3 October 1893
  • Vietnam 6 June 1884

Europe

• Rhenish Republic (1923–1924)
• Saar Protectorate (1946–1956), not colonial or amical, but a former part of Germany that would by referendum return to it, in fact a re-edition of a former League of Nations mandate. Most French protectorates were colonial.

Oceania

• French Polynesia, mainly the Society Islands (several others were immediately annexed). All eventually were annexed by 1889.
  • Otaheiti (native king styled Ari`i rahi) becomes a French protectorate known as Tahiti, 1842–1880
  • Raiatea and Tahaa (after temporary annexation by Otaheiti; (title Ari`i) a French protectorate, 1880)
  • Mangareva (one of the Gambier Islands; ruler title `Akariki) a French protectorate, 16 February 1844 (unratified) and 30 November 1871
• Wallis and Futuna:
  • Wallis declared to be a French protectorate by King of Uvea and Captain Mallet, 4 November 1842. Officially in a treaty becomes a French protectorate, 5 April 1887.
  • Sigave and Alo on the islands of Futuna and Alofi signed a treaty establishing a French protectorate on 16 February 1888.

Germany's protectorates and protected states

See also: List of former German colonies

5000 kronen – Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (1939–1945)

The German Empire used the word Schutzgebiet, literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I, regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included:

• German New Guinea (1884–1920), now part of Papua New Guinea
• German South West Africa (1884–1920), present-day Namibia
• Togoland (1884–1914), now part of Ghana and Togo
• North Solomon Islands (1885–1920), now part of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands
• Wituland (1885–1890), now part of Kenya
• Ruanda-Urundi (1894–1920)
• German Samoa (1900–1920), present-day Samoa
• Marshall Islands
• Nauru, various officials posted with the Head Chiefs
• Gando Emirate (1895–1897)
• Gulmu (1895–1897)

Before and during World War II, Nazi Germany designated the rump of occupied Czechoslovakia and Denmark as protectorates:

• Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (1939–1945), however it was also considered a partially annexed territory of Germany
• Denmark (1940–1943)

India's protectorates

• Afghanistan
• Bangladesh
• Bhutan
• Iran
• Maldives
• Nepal
• Pakistan
• Sri Lanka

• Bhutan (1947–2007).
• Kingdom of Sikkim (1950–1975), later acceded to India as State of Sikkim.
• Cis-Sutlej states (1809–1862)
• Kingdom of Nepal (1816–1923; protected state)
• Kingdom of Sikkim (1861–1947), (1947–1972)
• Maldive Islands (1776–1965, 1965–1968, 1968–1990)
• Various British Raj princely states (1845–1947)
• Bhutan (1906–1947 and 1948; protected state)

Possessions in South Asia

• • Possessions in South Asia
    • Sikh Empire (1799–1849)
    • Jammu and Kashmir (princely state) (1819–1846)
    • Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (1834–1849)
    • East India Company (1757–1858)
    • India (1858–1947)
    • Ceylon (1815–1948)
    • Bhutan (protectorate) (1907–1947)
    • Sikkim (protectorate) (1861–1948)
    • Nepal (protectorate) (1816–1923)
  • Possessions in East Asia
    • British Hong Kong (1841–1997)
  • Possessions in the Middle East
    • Trucial States (1820–1971)
    • British Bahrain (1861-1971)
    • British Qatar (1916–1971)
    • British Iraq (1920–1932) (1932–1958)
    • Emirate of Transjordan (1921–1946)
    • Mandatory Palestine (1920–1948)
    • Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961)
    • Aden Protectorate (1872–1963)
    • Muscat and Oman (1892–1970)
    • Emirate of Afghanistan (protectorate) (1879–1947)
• Ancient India
  • Greater India
  • Indosphere
  • Sanskritization
  • Spread of Buddhism in Southeast Asia
  • Spread of Hinduism in Southeast Asia
• Indian empires
  • Maurya Empire
  • Chola Empire
  • Mughal Empire
  • Maratha Empire
  • Sikh Empire
• British Raj
  • Economy of India under the British Raj
  • Economy of India under Company rule
  • Political warfare in British colonial India
  • Opposition to the partition of India
• List of Indian Princely States
  • Arakkal Kingdom
  • Hyderabad State
  • Kingdom of Mysore
  • Kingdom of Travancore
  • Rajput States
  • Kingdom of Calicut

Italy's protectorates and protected states

• The Albanian Republic (1917–1920) and the Albanian Kingdom (1939–1943)
• Monaco under amical Protectorate of the Kingdom of Sardinia 20 November 1815 to 1860.
• Ethiopia : 2 May 1889 Treaty of Wuchale, in the Italian language version, stated that Ethiopia was to become an Italian protectorate, while the Ethiopian Amharic language version merely stated that the Emperor could, if he so chose, go through Italy to conduct foreign affairs. When the differences in the versions came to light, Emperor Menelik II abrogated first the article in question (XVII), and later the whole treaty. The event culminated in the First Italo-Ethiopian War, in which Ethiopia was victorious and defended her sovereignty in 1896.
• Libya: on 15 October 1912 Italian protectorate declared over Cirenaica (Cyrenaica) until 17 May 1919.
• Benadir Coast in Somalia: 3 August 1889 Italian protectorate (in the northeast; unoccupied until May 1893), until 16 March 1905 when it changed to Italian Somaliland.
  • Majeerteen Sultanate since 7 April 1889 under Italian protectorate (renewed 7 April 1895), then in 1927 incorporated into the Italian colony.
  • Sultanate of Hobyo since December 1888 under Italian protectorate (renewed 11 April 1895), then in October 1925 incorporated into the Italian colony (known as Obbia).
• Puntland Protectorate italy

Japan's protectorates

Japan's protectorates

Members of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere; territory controlled at maximum height. Japan and its allies in dark red; Thailand and Free India. Occupied territories/client states in lighter red. Korea, Taiwan, and Karafuto (South Sakhalin) were integral parts of Japan.

Maximum extent of the Japanese empire

This is a list of regions occupied or annexed by the Empire of Japan until 1945, the year of the end of World War II in Asia, after the surrender of Japan. Control over all territories except most of the Japanese mainland (Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and some 6,000 small surrounding islands) was renounced by Japan in the unconditional surrender after World War II and the Treaty of San Francisco. A number of territories occupied by the United States after 1945 were returned to Japan, but there are still a number of disputed territories between Japan and Russia (the Kuril Islands dispute), South Korea and North Korea (the Liancourt Rocks dispute), the People's Republic of China and Taiwan (the Senkaku Islands dispute).

• Japan:
  • Manchuria (Manchukuo), Northern China (1945/1946)
  • Philippines (1945/1946)
  • Burma (1945/1948)
  • North Korea (1945/1948)
  • South Korea (1945/1948)
  • Taiwan (1945/1949)
  • Malaysia
  • Singapore (1965)
  • Taiwan (1642)
  • Indonesia (1945/1949)
  • Netherlands New Guinea (1962)
• Korean Empire (1905–1910)
• Manchukuo (1932–1945)
• Mengjiang (1939–1945)

World War II

Territory	Japanese name	Date	Population est. (1944)	Notes
South Sakhalin	Karafuto Prefecture (樺太庁)	1905–1943	406,000	Elevated to naichi status in 1943.
Mainland China	Chūgoku tairiku (中国大陸)	1931–1945	200,000,000 (est.)	Manchukuo 50 million (1940), Rehe, Kwantung Leased Territory, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, plus parts of : Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guizhou, Inner Mongolia
Japan proper	naichi (内地)	1868–1945	76,200,000	Present day Japan, South Sakhalin (after 1943), and Kuril Islands
Korea	Chōsen (朝鮮)	1910–1945	25,500,000
Taiwan	Taiwan (臺灣)	1895–1945	6,586,000
Hong Kong	Hon Kon (香港)	December 12, 1941 – August 15, 1945	1,400,000	Hong Kong (UK)
:: East Asia (subtotal)	Higashi Ajia (東アジア)	–	310,092,000
Vietnam	Annan (安南)	July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945	22,122,000	As French Indochina (FR)
Cambodia	Kanbojia (カンボジア)	July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945	3,100,000	As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Cambodia
Laos	Raosu (ラオス)	July 15, 1940 – August 29, 1945	1,400,000	As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Laos
Thailand	Tai (タイ)	December 8, 1941 – August 15, 1945	16,216,000	Independent state but allied with Japan
Malaysia	Maraya (マラヤ), Kita Boruneo (北ボルネオ), Marai (マライ)	March 27, 1942 – September 6, 1945 (Malaya), March 29, 1942 – September 9, 1945 (Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, North Borneo)	4,938,000 plus 39,000 (Brunei)	As Malaya (UK), British Borneo (UK), Brunei (UK)
Philippines	Firipin (フィリピン)	May 8, 1942 – July 5, 1945	17,419,000	Philippines (US)
Dutch East Indies	Higashi Indo (東印度), Sumatora Nishikaigan (スマトラ西海岸)	January 18, 1942 – October 21, 1945	72,146,000	Dutch East Indies (NL), West Coast Sumatra (NL)
Singapore	Syōnan-tō (昭南島)	February 15, 1942 – September 9, 1945	795,000	Singapore (UK)
Burma (Myanmar)	Biruma (ビルマ)	1942–1945	16,800,000	Burma (UK)
East Timor	Higashi Chimōru (東チモール)	February 19, 1942 – September 2, 1945	450,000	Portuguese Timor (PT)
:: Southeast Asia (subtotal)	Tōnan Ajia (東南アジア)	–	155,452,000
New Guinea	Nyū Ginia (ニューギニア)	December 27, 1941 – September 15, 1945	1,400,000	As Papua and New Guinea (AU)
Guam	Ōmiya-tō (大宮島)	January 6, 1942 – October 24, 1945		from Guam (US)
South Seas Mandate	Nan'yō Guntō (南洋群島)	1919–1945	129,000	from German Empire
Nauru	Nauru (ナウル)	August 26, 1942 – September 13, 1945	3,000	Occupied from the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand
Wake Island, US	Ōtori-shima, -jima (大鳥島)	December 27, 1941 – September 4, 1945	nil	US
Kiribati	Kiribasu (キリバス)	December 1941 – January 22, 1944	28,000	from Gilbert Islands (UK)
:: Pacific Islands (subtotal)	–	–	1,433,000
:: Total Population	–	–	465,544,000

Disclaimer: Not all areas were considered part of Imperial Japan but rather part of puppet states & sphere of influence, allies, included separately for demographic purposes. Sources: POPULSTAT Asia

Other occupied islands during World War II:

• Andaman Islands (India) – March 29, 1942 – September 9, 1945
• Christmas Island (Australia) – March 1942 – October 1945
• Attu and Kiska (Alaska, United States) – June 3, 1942 – August 15, 1943

Areas attacked but not conquered

• Kohima and Manipur (India)
• Dornod (Khalkhin Gol, Mongolia)
• Midway Atoll (United States)

Raided without immediate intent of occupation

• Air raids
  • Pearl Harbor (Hawaii, United States)
  • Colombo and Trincomalee (Sri Lanka)
  • Calcutta (India)
  • Chittagong (Bangladesh)
  • Air raids on Australia, including:
    • Broome (Western Australia, Australia)
    • Darwin (Northern Territory, Australia)
    • Townsville (Queensland, Australia)
  • Dutch Harbor (Alaska, United States)
  • Lookout Air Raids (Oregon, United States)
• Naval bombardment by submarine
  • British Columbia (Canada)
  • Ellwood (Santa Barbara, California, United States)
  • Fort Stevens (Oregon, United States)
  • Newcastle (New South Wales, Australia)
  • Gregory (Western Australia, Australia)
• Midget sub attack
  • Sydney (New South Wales, Australia)
  • Diego Suarez (Madagascar)

Imperial Japan

Location of Manchukuo (red) within Imperial Japan's sphere of influence in 1939

In the late 19th century, the Empire of Japan gradually reduced Joseon Korea's status to that of a client state. In the early 20th century, this was converted to direct rule. Manchukuo, in contrast, remained a puppet state throughout World War II.

• Azad Hind (1943–1945)
• State of Burma (1943–1945)
• Kingdom of Kampuchea (1945)
• China (East Hebei Autonomous Government and North Shanxi Autonomous Government)
  • Great Way Government (1937–1938)
  • Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)
  • Reorganised National Government of the Republic of China (1940–1945)
• Joseon (After the First Sino-Japanese War)
• Korean Empire (1905–1910)
• Kingdom of Luang Phrabang (1945)
• Manchukuo (1932–1945)
• Mengjiang (1939–1945)
• Second Philippine Republic (1943–1945)
• Empire of Vietnam (1945)

Poland's protectorates

• Kaffa (1462–1475)

Portugal's protectorates

• Portuguese Empire (1415–1999)
  • Evolution of the Portuguese Empire
  • Portuguese colonization of the Americas
    • Colonial Brazil (1500–1815)
  • Portuguese India (1505–1961)
  • Portuguese Ceylon (1598–1658)
  • Portuguese Timor (1702–1975)
  • Portuguese Macau (1557–1999)
  • Portuguese Malacca (1511–1641)
  • Portuguese Nagasaki (1580–1587)
  • Portuguese Oman (1507–1656)
  • Tamão (1514–1521)
  • Portuguese Africa
    • Portuguese East Africa (1498–1975)
    • Portuguese West Africa (1575–1975)
    • Portuguese Guinea (1474–1974) (1974–1975)
    • Portuguese Cape Verde (1462–1975)
    • Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe (1470–1975)
    • Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá (1721–1961)
    • Portuguese Gold Coast (1482–1642)
• Cabinda (Portuguese Congo) (1885–1974), Portugal first claimed sovereignty over Cabinda in the February 1885 Treaty of Simulambuco, which gave Cabinda the status of a protectorate of the Portuguese Crown under the request of "the princes and governors of Cabinda".
• Kingdom of Kongo (1857–1914)
• Gaza Empire (1824–1895), now part of Mozambique
• Angoche Sultanate (1903–1910)
• Kingdom of Larantuka (1515–1859)
• Portuguese Angola (now Angola)
  • Mainland Angola
  • Portuguese Congo(now Cabinda Province of Angola)
• Portuguese Mozambique(now Mozambique)
• Portuguese Guinea(now Guinea-Bissau)
• Portuguese Gold Coast now part of Ghana
• Portuguese Cape Verde
• Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe
  • São Tomé Island
  • Príncipe Island
  • Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá(now Ouidah, in Benin)

• Ajuda (Whydah, in Benin)
• Portuguese Angola
• Annobón
• Cabinda
• Cape Verde (Cabo Verde)
• Ceuta
• Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá
• Gorée (in Senegal)
• Malindi
• Mombasa
• Algarve Ultramar (Morocco)
  • Agadir
  • Alcacer Ceguer
  • Arzila
  • Azamor
  • Mazagan
  • Mogador
  • Safim
• Nigeria (Lagos area)
• Mozambique
• Portuguese Gold Coast (settlements along coast of Ghana)
• Portuguese Guinea (Guinea-Bissau)
• Quíloa
• São Tomé and Príncipe
• Tangier
• Zanzibar
• Ziguinchor

Russia's and the Soviet Union Empire protectorates and protected states

The countries of the Warsaw Pact, the main block of Soviet imperialism

Greatest territorial extent of the Soviet empire (red) in 1959–1960; after the Cuban Revolution but before the Sino-Soviet split. This territory was politically, economically, and militarily dominated by the Soviet Union amidst the Cold War, covering an area of approximately 35,000,000 km² (14,000,000 sq mi).

The term "Soviet empire" collectively refers to the world's territories that the Soviet Union dominated politically, economically, and militarily. This phenomenon, particularly in the context of the Cold War, is also called Soviet imperialism by Sovietologists to describe the extent of the Soviet Union's hegemony over the Second World.

In a wider sense, the term refers to Soviet foreign policy during the Cold War, which has been characterized as imperialist: the countries that comprised the Soviet empire were nominally independent with native governments that set their own policies, but those policies had to stay within certain limits decided by the Soviet government. These limits were enforced by the threat of forceful regime change and/or by the threat of direct action by the Soviet Armed Forces (and later by the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact). Major Soviet military interventions of this nature took place in East Germany in 1953, in Hungary in 1956, in Czechoslovakia in 1968, in Poland from 1980 until 1983, and in Afghanistan from 1979 until 1989. Countries in the Eastern Bloc were widely regarded as Soviet satellite states rather than as independent allies of the Soviet Union.

Russian

See also: Russian colonization of America

The Russian settlement of St. Paul's Harbour (present-day Kodiak, Alaska), Russian America, 1814

• Fort Ross
• Russian America
• Russian concession of Tianjin
• Russian Dalian
• Sagallo
• Cossack Hetmanate (1654–1764)
• Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti (1783–1801)
• Kingdom of Imereti (1804–1810)
• Revolutionary Serbia (1807–1812)
• Principality of Serbia (1826–1856), now part of Serbia
• Principality of Moldova (1829–1856), now part of Moldova, Romania and Ukraine
• Principality of Wallachia (1829–1856)
• Emirate of Bukhara (1873–1920)
• Khanate of Khiva (1873–1920)
• Uryankhay Krai (1914)
• Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1949), now part of Xinjiang, China

Communist states aligned with the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union is seen in red while states in light pink were satellites. Yugoslavia, a Soviet ally from 1945 to 1948 and non-aligned state thereafter, is marked in purple. Albania, a state which ceased being allied to the Soviet Union in the 1960s after the Sino-Soviet split, is marked in orange.

Warsaw Pact

These countries were the closest allies of the Soviet Union and were also members of the Comecon, a Soviet-led economic community founded in 1949. The members of the Warsaw Pact, sometimes called the Eastern Bloc, were widely viewed as Soviet satellite states. These countries were occupied (or formerly occupied) by the Red Army, and their politics, military, foreign and domestic policies were dominated by the Soviet Union. The Warsaw Pact included the following states:

• People's Socialist Republic of Albania (1946–1968)
• People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990)
• Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1948–1990)
• German Democratic Republic (1949–1990)
• Hungarian People's Republic (1949–1989)
• Polish People's Republic (1947–1989)
• Socialist Republic of Romania (1947–1960s)

In addition to having a permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council, the Soviet Union had two of its union republics in the United Nations General Assembly:

• Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic
• Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic

Other Marxist–Leninist states

These countries were Marxist-Leninist states who were allied with the Soviet Union, but were not part of the Warsaw Pact.

• Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1991)
• People's Republic of Angola (1975–1991)
• People's Republic of Benin (1975–1990)
• Burkina Faso (1983–1987)
• Chinese Soviet Republic (1931–1937)
• People's Republic of China (1949–1961)
• People's Republic of the Congo (1969–1991)
• Republic of Cuba (1959–1991)
• Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia, then People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1974–1991)
• People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1989)
• People's Revolutionary Government of Grenada (1979–1983)
• Democratic People's Republic of Korea (1948–1991, also allied with China)
• Lao People's Democratic Republic (1975–1991)
• Madagascar (1975–1990)
• Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1991)
• People's Republic of Mozambique (1975–1990)
• Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1977)
• Tuvan People's Republic (1921–1944)
• Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1954–1976), then Socialist Republic of Vietnam (1976–1991)
• People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (1967–1990)
• Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1948)

De facto

See also: Russian-occupied territories

Some sources mention the following territories as de facto Russian protectorates:

• South Ossetia (2008–present)
• Transnistria (1992–present)
• Abkhazia (1994–present)
• Donetsk People's Republic (2015–2022)
• Luhansk People's Republic (2015–2022)
• Republic of Artsakh (2020–2023)

• Algeria (1962–1991)
• People's Republic of Bangladesh (1971–1975)
• Burma (1962–1988)
• Cape Verde (1975–1990)
• Chile (1970–1973)
• Republic of China (KMT) (1921–1927)
• Egypt (1954–1974)
• Ghana (1964–1966)
• Guinea (1960–1984)
• Guinea Bissau (1973–1991)
• Equatorial Guinea (1968–1979)
• Guyana (1966–1991)
• India (1971–1991)
• Indonesia (1959–1965)
• Iraq (1958–1963; 1968–1990)
• Israel (1948–1953)
• Libya (1969–1991)
• Mali (1960–1991)
• Mauritania (1961–1984)
• Nicaragua (1979–1990)
• Palestine (1967–1991)
• Peru (1968–1975)
• Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (1976–1991)
• Sao Tome and Principe (1975–1991)
• Seychelles (1977–1991)
• Sudan (1969–1971)
• Syria (1958–1961; 1963–1991)
• Tanzania (1964–1985)
• Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1949)
• Turkey (1923–1930)
• Uganda (1969–1971)
• Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen) (1962–1972)
• Zambia (1964–1991)
• Zimbabwe (1980-1991)

Spain's protectorates

• Spanish Morocco protectorate from 27 November 1912 until 2 April 1958 (Northern zone until 7 April 1956, Southern zone (Cape Juby) until 2 April 1958).
• Sultanate of Sulu (1851–1899)

Turkey's and the Ottoman Empire's protectorates and protected states

• Aceh Sultanate (1569–1903)
• Maldives (1560–1590)
• Cossack Hetmanate (1669–1685)

De facto

• Northern Cyprus (1983–present)

Ottoman (Turkish)

Further information: Vassal and tributary states of the Ottoman Empire

Territorial extent of the Ottoman Empire in 1683

• Sultanate of Aceh (1569–1903)
• Yettishar (1873–1877)
• Maldives
• Rumelia
• Ottoman North Africa
  • Ottoman Egypt
  • Ottoman Tripolitania
  • Ottoman Tunisia
  • Ottoman Algeria
  • Morocco (1526–1544)
• Ottoman Northeast Africa
  • Ottoman Jeddah and Habesh
  • Ottoman Zeila
• Ottoman Arabia
  • Sharifate of Mecca (1517–1783/1818–1916)
  • Ottoman Hejaz
  • Ottoman Lahsa
  • Ottoman Najd
  • Ottoman Yemen
• Ottoman Serbia
• Ottoman Bulgaria
• Ottoman Bosnia
• Ottoman Albania
• Ottoman Hungary
• Ottoman Greece
• Ottoman North Macedonia
• Ottoman Montenegro
• Crimean Khanate (1475–1774)

United Nations' protectorates

Main article: United Nations protectorate

United States' protectorates and protected states

After becoming independent nations in 1902 and 1903 respectively, Cuba and Panama became protectorates of the United States. In 1903, Cuba and the US signed the Cuban–American Treaty of Relations, which affirmed the provisions of the Platt Amendment, including that the US had the right to intervene in Cuba to preserve its independence, among other reasons (the Platt Amendment had also been integrated into the 1901 constitution of Cuba). Later that year, Panama and the US signed the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which established the Panama Canal Zone and gave the US the right to intervene in the cities of Panama and Colón (and the adjacent territories and harbors) for the maintenance of public order. The 1904 constitution of Panama, in Article 136, also gave the US the right to intervene in any part of Panama "to reestablish public peace and constitutional order." Haiti later also became a protectorate after the ratification of the Haitian–American Convention (which gave the US the right to intervene in Haiti for a period of ten years, which was later expanded to twenty years through an additional agreement in 1917) on September 16, 1915.

The US also attempted to establish protectorates over the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua through the Bryan–Chamorro Treaty.

• Cuba (1904–1934)
• Panama (1904–1939)
• Haiti (1915–1936)

De facto

• Republic of Negros (1899–1901)
• Republic of Zamboanga (1899–1903)
• Sultanate of Sulu (1899–1915)

Contemporary usage by the United States

Some agencies of the United States government, such as the Environmental Protection Agency, refer to the District of Columbia and insular areas of the United States—such as American Samoa and the U.S. Virgin Islands—as protectorates. However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) within the United States Department of Interior, uses only the term "insular area" rather than protectorate.

• District of Columbia
• American Samoa
• Guam
• Northern Mariana Islands
• Puerto Rico
• U.S. Virgin Islands

Joint protectorates

Further information: Condominium (international law)

• Republic of Ragusa (1684–1798), a joint Habsburg Austrian–Ottoman Turkish protectorate
• The United States of the Ionian Islands and the Septinsular Republic were federal republics of seven formerly Venetian (see Provveditore) Ionian Islands (Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Santa Maura, Ithaca, Cerigo, and Paxos), officially under joint protectorate of the allied Christian powers, de facto a British amical protectorate from 1815 to 1864.
• Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956)
• Independent State of Croatia (1941–1943)
• Allied-occupied Germany (1945–1949)
• Allied-occupied Austria (1945–1955)

See also

• History of Africa#1951 – present
• Postcolonial Africa
• Economic history of Africa
• List of European colonies in Africa
• List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa
• States and Power in Africa
• Africa–United States relations
• Wars of national liberation
• decolonisation of Africa
• Year of Africa

• British Protected Person
• Client state
• European Union Police Mission in Bosnia and Herzegovina
• EUFOR Althea
• High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina
• League of Nations mandate
• Peace Implementation Council
• Protector (titles for Heads of State and other individual persons)
• Protectorate (imperial China)
• Timeline of national independence
• Tribute

Bibliography

• Hoffmann, Gerhard (1987). "Protectorates". Encyclopedia of Disputes Installment 10. Elsevier: 336–339. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-86241-9.50085-3. ISBN 9780444862419. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
• Meijknecht, Anna (2001), Towards International Personality: The Position of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples in International Law, Intersentia NV, ISBN 978-90-5095-166-1
• Onley, James (March 2009), "The Raj Reconsidered: British India's Informal Empire and Spheres of Influence in Asia and Africa" (PDF), Asian Affairs, 11 (1), archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2022, retrieved 24 December 2020
• Reisman, W. (1989), "Reflections on state responsibility for violations of explicit protectorate, mandate, and trusteeship obligations", Michigan Journal of International Law, 10 (1): 231–240
• Willigen, Niels van (2013), Peacebuilding and International Administration: The Cases of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-134-11718-5
• Larousse, Pierre; Paul Augé; Claude Augé (1925). Nouveau Petit Larousse Illustré: Dictionnaire Encyclopédique (in French). Larousse.