The Australian continent, also called Australia-New Guinea or SahulThe thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) is a large, carnivorous marsupial last seen in 1936.
This is a list of Australia-New Guinea species extinct in the Holocene that covers extinctions from the Holocene epoch, a geologic epoch that began about 11,650 years before present (about 9700 BCE)[a] and continues to the present day.[1]
A 2012 study reported the existence of a previously overlooked specimen in the Natural History Museum, London. The label notes it was collected by John T. Tunney from Mount Anderson in Kimberley, Western Australia in 1901. The study argues that the western long-beaked echidna survived as a rare species in Kimberley into the 20th century based on the circumstantial improbability of a collection label misassignment, the uniqueness of ectoparasites found on the specimen, the similarity of some Kimberley forests to known habitat in New Guinea, and the testimony of an Aboriginal elder.[12] A 2017 study disputes this conclusion and argues that the specimen most likely came from New Guinea and was mislabeled.[13] Additional research such as ancient DNA, stable isotopes, and trace elements may shed more light on this specimen, and targeted studies of relevant Kimberley Pleistocene and Holocene subfossil assemblages would be worthwhile.[12]
In Tasmania, the last confirmed wild individual was killed in 1931,[14] and the last in captivity died at Hobart Zoo in 1936.[15] Contrary to the consensus, a 2023 statistical analysis of alleged sightings suggested that thylacines survived in remote Tasmanian wilderness for decades past the 1930s. The peak likelihood for thylacine extinction was from the late 1980s through the early 2000s.[16]
There is extensive evidence for thylacines in mainland Australia from paleontology and rock art.[17] The scientific consensus is that thylacines were extirpated from mainland Australia around 1277-1229 BCE,[7] although the Thylacine Museum records several alleged mainland sightings from the 19th and 20th centuries.[18] Thylacines were also present in New Guinea until 3050 BCE.[19]
The extinction of the thylacine in mainland Australia was likely caused by competition with human hunters and dingos, while in Tasmania it was deliberately exterminated by sheep farmers.[15]
Most recent subfossil remains in mainland Australia were dated to 1277-1229 BCE. The introduction of the dingo, changes and intensification of human hunting, and warming climate have been speculated as possible reasons.[7] The species survives in Tasmania and was reintroduced to New South Wales in 2020.[20]
Also known as yallara. The last individual was collected in 1931, though a skull of unknown age was retrieved from a wedge-tailed eagle's nest in 1967. The main causes of extinction are believed to be predation by cats and foxes, possibly exacerbated by changes to the fire regime.[27]
The last reliably dated individual was collected in 1901, though Pintupi people recalled it surviving in the Gibson desert until the 1950s. The cause of extinction was predation by feral cats and foxes.[29] The two species were considered one until 2019.[28]
Last recorded in 1997. The only area it was found in with certainty, was destroyed by fire during the 1998 El Niño event.[30]In 2022, British tourist Michael Smith found the Telefomin cuscus eaten by the locals, indicating that this species is still surviving in the wild.[31]
Trioks, striped possum, Leadbeater's possum, and wrist-winged gliders (family Petauridae)
Also known as kuluwarri. The only known specimen was collected in 1932. Western Aboriginal Australians stated that it disappeared between 1940 and 1960. It was possibly driven to extinction by predation by feral cats and foxes, and changes to the fire regime.[35]
Last specimen was collected in 1889.[37] The species was possibly driven to extinction by habitat loss caused by livestock grazing and increased summer wildfires after the end of native controlled fires in the winter.[38]
The last confirmed records in the wild happened in 1924. Unconfirmed sightings happened in 1943 and 1950s-1970s, but extensive searching in the 1970s failed to locate any.[39] The last captive animal died in 1939.[40]
Only known from one specimen collected in the Tanami in 1933 and subfossil material from the Nullarbor. The causes of extinction are presumed to be predation by feral cats and foxes, and changes to the fire regime.[43]
The woylie experienced a large reduction in population size and range due to extensive land clearing and the introduction of feral cats and red foxes. The south-eastern subspecies (B. p. penicillata) is considered extinct. The surviving south-western subspecies (B. p. ogilbyi) is critically endangered.[44]
Last confirmed record in 1935 near Ooroowilanie, east of Lake Eyre, though several unconfirmed sightings were recorded in South Australia and Queensland between 1957 and 2011. It is considered to have become extinct due to predation by feral cats and foxes, though habitat degradation by herbivores could have contributed.[46]
Last recorded in 1875. Presumed to have become extinct due to predation by feral cats, exotic diseases, inappropriate fire regimes, habitat loss and degradation due to grazing livestock.[47]
Last recorded 1860-1862 in Victoria, where it was at one time common and even regarded as a pest, though a possible observational record was made near Deniliquin, New South Wales, in the early 1940s. It probably disappeared due to predation by cats, though human-induced habitat degradation could have contributed.[48]
Known only from subfossil remains but considered to have survived until European settlement. Since there has not been a targeted survey for the Capricorn rabbit rat, there is a thin hope of its survival, although this is unlikely.[49]
The last two specimens were collected south of the Musgrave Ranges in 1933, and the last unconfirmed sighting happened in 1970 in a cave along Canning Stock Route. Considered to have become extinct due to predation by feral cats, possibly helped by habitat degradation caused by introduced grazers.[50]
Last recorded in 2009. Disappeared due to increasing storms that depleted the island of vegetation.[51] Its extinction was described as the first extinction of a mammal species due to anthropogenic climate change.[52]
From north-eastern South Australia and south-eastern Northern Territory to North West Cape
The only known specimens came from Charlotte Waters, Northern Territory in 1896. Subfossils indicate that it had a wide distribution in the central and western arid zone. Reasons for extinction are unknown, but could have been predation by feral cats and foxes.[53]
Last collected in 1843 near New Norcia. Considered to have been driven to extinction primarily by epizootic disease or predation by feral cats, with habitat degradation by sheep grazing as secondary factor.[55]
Known from a single skull purchased in 1846. Considered extinct because of predation by feral cats, with habitat destruction by agriculture and livestock farming as possible contributors.[56]
South-eastern Queensland and north-eastern New South Wales
Last collected with certainty before 1892. Extinction considered to have been due to habitat clearance, predation by feral cats and possibly red foxes.[58]
Last collected in 1901-1902. Became extinct after being infected by trypanosome carried by fleas hosted by black rats, which were accidentally introduced by the SS Hindustan in 1900.[59][60]
Last recorded in 1897-1898. Became extinct after being infected by trypanosome carried by fleas hosted by black rats introduced in 1900. It was rarer than R. macleari and disappeared first.[60]
Known from a single specimen collected in 1874, though bats were reported as plentiful in the islands at the end of the 19th century. Possibly disappeared because of habitat loss.[63]
Described in the mid-19th century. No sightings were made in the 20th century, but a jawbone found in a kitchen midden in 1992 probably belongs to this species.[64]
Last recorded in 2009 following a 90% decline in three generations (10–15 years). The reasons are unclear, though predation and competition by introduced species, and exotic diseases have been suggested.[65]
Known from a single skull found in 1972 and believed to be between 50 and 100 years old. The reasons of extinction are unclear but could have been predated on by introduced rats and owls.[66]
Last recorded in 1819. One egg found in 1830 could have been laid by an Australian emu introduced in 1826, or a hybrid. It was hunted to extinction.[10]
This flightless bird is widespread in Tasmania, having benefited from European-style agriculture.[73] Fossil records indicate that it was found on the Australian mainland until around 4700 years ago. Suggested reasons for its extirpation have included human overhunting, the introduction of the dingo,[8] or an extremely dry period.[9]
Probably disappeared in the 1940s or 1950s due to deforestation, predation by introduced black rats, and predation or competition with southern boobooks, barn owls, and masked owls (all introduced in unsuccessful attempts to control the invasive rat population).[10]
Last individual died in 1996. Declined due to deforestation leading to increased competition for nest-hollows with honeybees and crimson rosellas. Descendants hybridized with the New Zealand subspeciesN. n. novaeseelandiae survive in the island.[10]
Last birds in the wild were sighted between 1825 and 1854, and the last in captivity died in London in 1851. Disappeared because of hunting[75] and habitat destruction by introduced rabbits, pigs, and goats.[10]
Southeastern Queensland and possibly New South Wales
Last confirmed observation in 1927 or 1928; it was considered extinct after a drought in 1902 but was rediscovered in 1918. Unconfirmed observations were made in the 1930s, 1940s, and 1990. Extinction factors include reduction of food supply due to drought and overgrazing, deforestation, altered fire regimes, spread of invasive prickly pears in Australia, disease, hunting and nest raiding.[76]
Last recorded in 1928. Presumed to have become extinct due to nest raiding by black rats, but disease from introduced passerines could also have been a factor.[77]
Extinction believed to be a result of predation by black rats that escaped the wreck of the SS Makambo in 1918, as it was not found in searches carried out in 1928 and 1936.[10]
Last confirmed sighting in 2000, followed by an unconfirmed one in 2005. The species declined due to competition with the silvereyeZosterops lateralis, which was introduced in 1904; the accidental introduction of black rats in the mid-1940s, and the clearance of forests.[10]
The subspecies became extinct around the late 1970s, with the last confirmed record in 1975. The cause of its extinction is attributed to a combination of clearing of native vegetation and predation by rats and feral cats. Additional factors were competition with introduced song thrushes and common blackbirds, as well as interbreeding with the latter species producing sterile offspring.[citation needed]
Not recorded since c. 1924. Believed to be a result of the introduction of black rats following the grounding of the SS Makambo in June 1918.[citation needed]
Last recorded in 1923, although its absence was not noted until 1968. It may have disappeared due to habitat destruction, or predation by black rats if it survived until 1940, when they were introduced to the island. As the last surviving subspecies, its extinction was also that of the species.[79]
All extinct and extinct in the wild reptiles of Christmas Island, from left to right: Emoia nativitatis, Lepidodactylus listeri, Cryptoblepharus egeriae.
Last seen in the wild in 2010. An attempted captivity breeding program in 2009 failed because only females could be captured, and the last captive animal died in 2014. Became extinct due to predation by introduced Indian wolf snakes, possibly hastened by deforestation.[81]
This species was last seen in 1973. It is classified as data deficient because there is substantial uncertainty regarding its taxonomic status. Either the type series represents unusually coloured individuals of Pearson's green tree frog or it is a distinct species that is now most likely extinct.[88]
Initially, the species expanded its range after the area was inundated for hydroelectric power generation in 1972. Introduced trout were a significant factor in the decline of this species. It was scarce by 1980, and the last wild specimen was captured in 1996. The species survives in two translocated populations outside its original range, one at Lake Oberon in the Western Arthurs mountain range and one at a modified water supply dam near Strathgordon.[90]
Plants and animals are listed as extinct and the federal level under the auspices of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. The Act lists all plants considered to have become extinct since the commencement of European settlement of Australia in 1788. There are 37 species currently listed as extinct under the Act.[97]
Of note, the species Pimelea spinescens subsp. pubiflora was presumed extinct after 1901, but a population was discovered in 2005.[98] The orchid Diuris bracteata was also considered extinct after its first collection in 1899, but it was thought to have been rediscovered in 1998. The later collections are now considered to be Diuris platichila.[99][100] The spiny everlasting (Acanthocladium dockeri) was reclassified as critically endangered in 2006 after it was rediscovered in 1999.[101]Bennett's Seaweed, declared extinct under the EPBC Act in 1999; was the first protist listed as extinct by the IUCN in 2004.[102]
Banksia integrifolia is common along the east coast of the Australian mainland, but has recently been declared extinct in Tasmania.
Each state and territory of Australia has legislation to record the extinction of plants and animals; organisms listed as extinct at the state level may differ from those listed under the EPBC Act.
Threatened species is the Northern Territory are listed under IUCN criteria by the Department of Natural Resources, Environment and the Arts.[104] As of 2006 there are no recorded plant extinctions in the Northern Territory.[105]
It was reported[109] on 12 April 2008 that two of the plants, Rhaphidospora cavernarum and Teucrium ajugaceum have been rediscovered on Cape York between Cooktown and Lockhart River, and are now re-classified as "vulnerable".
There are 20 taxa classified as "presumed extinct" under schedule 3.2 of the TasmanianThreatened Species Protection Act 1995. Only three of these species are listed as extinct under the EPBC Act.[110] The additional species listed as extinct under Tasmanian legislation are:
Threatened species in Victoria are identified under the auspices of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act (1988); the act does not specify species presumed extinct. The Victorian Department of Sustainability and Environment maintain a list of species presumed extinct in Victoria;[111] they list 51 extinct taxa, those not listed under the EPBC Act include:
^The source gives "11,700 calendar yr b2k (before CE 2000)". But "BP" means "before CE 1950". Therefore, the Holocene began 11,650 BP. Doing the math, that is c. 9700 BCE.
^Martin, P. S. (2005). Twilight of the mammoths: Ice Age extinctions and the rewilding of America (Vol. 8). Univ of California Press.
^"European discovery and the colonisation of Australia". Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Commonwealth of Australia. 11 January 2008. Archived from the original on 13 December 2017. Retrieved 24 April 2022. [The British] moved north to Port Jackson on 26 January 1788, landing at Camp Cove, known as 'cadi' to the Cadigal people. Governor Phillip carried instructions to establish the first British Colony in Australia. The First Fleet was underprepared for the task, and the soil around Sydney Cove was poor.
^ abcWhite, L.C. et al. (2018) High-quality fossil dates support a synchronous, Late Holocene extinction of devils and thylacines in mainland Australia. Biology Letters, 14(1), 20170642.
^ abMarchant, S.; P. J. Higgins (1993). Handbook of Australian and, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds. Volume 2: Raptors to Lapwings. Melbourne: Oxford University Press.
^ abFord, Hugh A. (1989). Ecology of Birds: An Australian perspective. Chipping Norton, New South Wales: Surrey Beattie and Sons. ISBN0-949324-19-1.
^Sleightholme, Stephen R.; Gordon, Tammy J.; Campbell, Cameron R. (2020). "The Kaine capture – questioning the history of the last Thylacine in captivity". Australian Zoologist. 41: 1–11.
^Finlayson, H.H. (1961). On central Australian mammals. Part IV-The distribution and status of central Australian species. Records of the South Australian Museum. 14: 141–191.
^ abGovernment of Western Australia, Department of Biodiversity, Conservation and Attractions (25 April 2022). "Woylie Fauna Profile"(PDF). www.dpaw.wa.gov.au. Retrieved 25 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Sutton, A., Mountain, M. J., Aplin, K., Bulmer, S., & Denham, T. (2009). Archaeozoological records for the highlands of New Guinea: A review of current evidence. Australian Archaeology, 69(1), 41-58.
^Hawkins, S., & Worthy, T. H. (2019). Lapita colonisation and avian extinctions in Oceania. terra australis 52, 439.
^Stephen T. Garnett & Gabriel M. Crowley (2000). "New Zealand Pigeon (Norfolk Island)"(PDF). The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2000. Environment Australia. Archived from the original(PDF) on 21 May 2011. Retrieved 8 December 2008.
^Forshaw, J. (2015) Pigeons and doves in Australia. Csiro Publishing, 360 pages.
^Ridpath, M. G.; P. J. Higgins (1964). The Tasmanian Native Hen. Hobart: CSIRO, Division of Wildlife Research.
^Worthy, T. H., & Nguyen, J. M. (2020). An annotated checklist of the fossil birds of Australia. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, 144(1), 66-108.
^Schodde R, Mason IJ (1999). The Directory of Australian Birds: Passerines. A Taxonomic and Zoogeographic Atlas of the Biodiversity of Birds in Australia and its Territories. Collingwood, Australia: CSIRO Publishing. pp. x 851 pp. ISBN0-643-06456-7.
^Rózsa, L., & Vas, Z. (2015). Co-extinct and critically co-endangered species of parasitic lice, and conservation-induced extinction: should lice be reintroduced to their hosts?. Oryx, 49(1), 107-110.
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